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NIST SP 800-63B Digital Identity Guidelines

Date

Jun 2017

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NIST Special Publication 800-63B defines technical requirements for digital authentication, authenticator assurance levels, authenticator and verifier requirements, lifecycle management, session management, privacy, threats, and usability. The June 2017 publication includes updates through March 2, 2020; it was withdrawn August 1, 2025, and superseded in its entirety by NIST SP 800-63B-4, published July 2025.

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Withdrawn NIST Technical Series Publication
Warning Notice
The attached publication has been withdrawn (archived), and is provided solely for historical purposes.
It may have been superseded by another publication (indicated below).

Withdrawn Publication
Series/Number
Title
Publication Date(s)
Withdrawal Date
Withdrawal Note

NIST Special Publication 800-63B
Digital Identity Guidelines: Authentication and Lifecycle Management
June 2017 (includes updates as of 03-02-2020)
August 1, 2025
NIST SP 800-63B is withdrawn and superseded in its entirety by NIST SP 80063B-4.

Superseding Publication(s) (if applicable)
The attached publication has been superseded by the following publication(s):
Series/Number
Title
Author(s)
Publication Date(s)
URL/DOI

NIST SP 800-63B-4
Digital Identity Guidelines: Authentication and Authenticator Management
David Temoshok, et al.
July 2025
https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63B-4

Additional Information (if applicable)
Contact
Latest revision of the
attached publication
Related Information

Applied Cybersecurity Division (Information Technology Laboratory)

https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/63/b/4/final
https://www.nist.gov/identity-access-management/nist-special-publication800-63-digital-identity-guidelines

Withdrawal
Announcement Link

Date updated: July 24, 2025

NIST Special Publication 800-63B

Digital Identity Guidelines
Authentication and Lifecycle Management

Paul A. Grassi
James L. Fenton
Elaine M. Newton
Ray A. Perlner
Andrew R. Regenscheid
William E. Burr
Justin P. Richer
Privacy Authors:
Naomi B. Lefkovitz
Jamie M. Danker
Usability Authors:
Yee-Yin Choong
Kristen K. Greene
Mary F. Theofanos

This publication is available free of charge from:
https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

NIST Special Publication 800-63B

Digital Identity Guidelines
Authentication and Lifecycle Management
Paul A. Grassi
Elaine M. Newton
Applied Cybersecurity Division
Information Technology Laboratory

Ray A. Perlner
Andrew R. Regenscheid
Computer Security Division
Information Technology Laboratory

James L. Fenton
Altmode Networks
Los Altos, Calif.

William E. Burr
Dakota Consulting, Inc.
Silver Spring, Md.
Justin P. Richer
Bespoke Engineering
Billerica, Mass.

Privacy Authors:
Naomi B. Lefkovitz
Applied Cybersecurity Division
Information Technology Laboratory

Usability Authors:
Yee-Yin Choong
Kristen K. Greene
Information Access Division
Information Technology Laboratory

Jamie M. Danker
National Protection and Programs Directorate
Department of Homeland Security

Mary F. Theofanos
Office of Data and Informatics
Material Measurement Laboratory

This publication is available free of charge from:
https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

June 2017
INCLUDES UPDATES AS OF 03-02-2020; PAGE VIII

U.S. Department of Commerce
Wilbur L. Ross, Jr., Secretary
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Kent Rochford, Acting NIST Director and Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology

Authority

This publication has been developed by NIST in accordance with its statutory responsibilities
under the Federal Information Security Modernization Act (FISMA) of 2014, 44 U.S.C. § 3551 et
seq., Public Law (P.L.) 113-283. NIST is responsible for developing information security
standards and guidelines, including minimum requirements for federal systems, but such standards
and guidelines shall not apply to national security systems without the express approval of
appropriate federal officials exercising policy authority over such systems. This guideline is
consistent with the requirements of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-130.
Nothing in this publication should be taken to contradict the standards and guidelines made
mandatory and binding on federal agencies by the Secretary of Commerce under statutory
authority. Nor should these guidelines be interpreted as altering or superseding the existing
authorities of the Secretary of Commerce, Director of the OMB, or any other federal official. This
publication may be used by nongovernmental organizations on a voluntary basis and is not subject
to copyright in the United States. Attribution would, however, be appreciated by NIST.
National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 800-63B
Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 800-63B, 79 pages (June 2017)
CODEN: NSPUE2
This publication is available free of charge from:
https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this document in order to describe an
experimental procedure or concept adequately. Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or
endorsement by NIST, nor is it intended to imply that the entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best
available for the purpose.
There may be references in this publication to other publications currently under development by NIST in accordance
with its assigned statutory responsibilities. The information in this publication, including concepts and methodologies,
may be used by federal agencies even before the completion of such companion publications. Thus, until each
publication is completed, current requirements, guidelines, and procedures, where they exist, remain operative. For
planning and transition purposes, federal agencies may wish to closely follow the development of these new
publications by NIST.
Organizations are encouraged to review all draft publications during public comment periods and provide feedback to
NIST. Many NIST cybersecurity publications, other than the ones noted above, are available at
http://csrc.nist.gov/publications.

Comments on this publication may be submitted to:
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Attn: Applied Cybersecurity Division, Information Technology Laboratory
100 Bureau Drive (Mail Stop 2000) Gaithersburg, MD 20899-2000
Email: dig-comments@nist.gov

All comments are subject to release under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA).

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Reports on Computer Systems Technology

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

The Information Technology Laboratory (ITL) at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) promotes the U.S. economy and public welfare by providing technical
leadership for the Nation’s measurement and standards infrastructure. ITL develops tests, test
methods, reference data, proof of concept implementations, and technical analyses to advance the
development and productive use of information technology. ITL’s responsibilities include the
development of management, administrative, technical, and physical standards and guidelines for
the cost-effective security and privacy of other than national security-related information in federal
information systems. The Special Publication 800-series reports on ITL’s research, guidelines, and
outreach efforts in information system security, and its collaborative activities with industry,
government, and academic organizations.
Abstract
These guidelines provide technical requirements for federal agencies implementing digital identity
services and are not intended to constrain the development or use of standards outside of this
purpose. These guidelines focus on the authentication of subjects interacting with government
systems over open networks, establishing that a given claimant is a subscriber who has been
previously authenticated. The result of the authentication process may be used locally by the
system performing the authentication or may be asserted elsewhere in a federated identity system.
This document defines technical requirements for each of the three authenticator assurance levels.
This publication supersedes corresponding sections of NIST Special Publication (SP) 800-63-2.
Keywords
authentication; credential service provider; digital authentication; digital credentials; electronic
authentication; electronic credentials, federation.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge Kaitlin Boeckl for her artistic graphics contributions to all
volumes in the SP 800-63 suite and the contributions of our many reviewers, including Joni
Brennan from the Digital ID & Authentication Council of Canada (DIACC), Kat Megas, Ellen
Nadeau, and Ben Piccarreta from NIST, and Ryan Galluzzo and Danna Gabel O’Rourke from
Deloitte & Touche LLP.

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

The authors would also like to acknowledge the thought leadership and innovation of the original
authors: Donna F. Dodson, W. Timothy Polk, Sarbari Gupta, and Emad A. Nabbus. Without
their tireless efforts, we would not have had the incredible baseline from which to evolve 800-63
to the document it is today. In addition, special thanks to the Federal Privacy Council’s Digital
Authentication Task Force for the contributions to the development of privacy requirements and
considerations.
Requirements Notation and Conventions
The terms “SHALL” and “SHALL NOT” indicate requirements to be followed strictly in order
to conform to the publication and from which no deviation is permitted.
The terms “SHOULD” and “SHOULD NOT” indicate that among several possibilities one is
recommended as particularly suitable, without mentioning or excluding others, or that a certain
course of action is preferred but not necessarily required, or that (in the negative form) a certain
possibility or course of action is discouraged but not prohibited.
The terms “MAY” and “NEED NOT” indicate a course of action permissible within the limits of
the publication.
The terms “CAN” and “CANNOT” indicate a possibility or capability, whether material,
physical or causal or, in the negative, the absence of that possibility or capability.

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NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents
1

Purpose................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 2

Definitions and Abbreviations .............................................................................. 4

Authenticator Assurance Levels .......................................................................... 5
Authenticator Assurance Level 1 .................................................................... 5
4.1.1 Permitted Authenticator Types ............................................................. 5
4.1.2 Authenticator and Verifier Requirements .............................................. 6

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

4.1.3 Reauthentication................................................................................... 6
4.1.4 Security Controls .................................................................................. 6
4.1.5 Records Retention Policy ..................................................................... 6
Authenticator Assurance Level 2 .................................................................... 6
4.2.1 Permitted Authenticator Types ............................................................. 7
4.2.2 Authenticator and Verifier Requirements .............................................. 7
4.2.3 Reauthentication................................................................................... 8
4.2.4 Security Controls .................................................................................. 8
4.2.5 Records Retention Policy ..................................................................... 8
Authenticator Assurance Level 3 .................................................................... 8
4.3.1 Permitted Authenticator Types ............................................................. 9
4.3.2 Authenticator and Verifier Requirements .............................................. 9
4.3.3 Reauthentication................................................................................. 10
4.3.4 Security Controls ................................................................................ 10
4.3.5 Records Retention Policy ................................................................... 10
Privacy Requirements ................................................................................... 10
Summary of Requirements ........................................................................... 11
5

Authenticator and Verifier Requirements .......................................................... 13
Requirements by Authenticator Type ............................................................ 13
5.1.1 Memorized Secrets............................................................................. 13
5.1.2 Look-Up Secrets ................................................................................. 15
5.1.3 Out-of-Band Devices .......................................................................... 16
5.1.4 Single-Factor OTP Device .................................................................. 19
5.1.5 Multi-Factor OTP Devices .................................................................. 20
5.1.6 Single-Factor Cryptographic Software ................................................ 22
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DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
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5.1.7 Single-Factor Cryptographic Devices ................................................. 22
5.1.8 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software .................................................. 23
5.1.9 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Devices.................................................... 24
General Authenticator Requirements ............................................................ 25
5.2.1 Physical Authenticators ...................................................................... 25
5.2.2 Rate Limiting (Throttling) .................................................................... 25
5.2.3 Use of Biometrics ............................................................................... 26
5.2.4 Attestation .......................................................................................... 28
This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

5.2.5 Verifier Impersonation Resistance ...................................................... 28
5.2.6 Verifier-CSP Communications ............................................................ 29
5.2.7 Verifier-Compromise Resistance ........................................................ 29
5.2.8 Replay Resistance.............................................................................. 30
5.2.9 Authentication Intent ........................................................................... 30
5.2.10 Restricted Authenticators ................................................................... 30
6

Authenticator Lifecycle Management................................................................. 32
Authenticator Binding .................................................................................... 32
6.1.1 Binding at Enrollment ......................................................................... 33
6.1.2 Post-Enrollment Binding ..................................................................... 34
6.1.3 Binding to a Subscriber-provided Authenticator ................................. 35
6.1.4 Renewal ............................................................................................. 35
Loss, Theft, Damage, and Unauthorized Duplication .................................... 35
Expiration ...................................................................................................... 36
Revocation and Termination ......................................................................... 36

Session Management .......................................................................................... 37
Session Bindings .......................................................................................... 37
7.1.1 Browser Cookies ................................................................................ 38
7.1.2 Access Tokens ................................................................................... 38
7.1.3 Device Identification ........................................................................... 38
Reauthentication ........................................................................................... 39
7.2.1 Reauthentication from a Federation or Assertion ............................... 39

Threats and Security Considerations................................................................. 41
Authenticator Threats.................................................................................... 41
Threat Mitigation Strategies .......................................................................... 45
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DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
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Authenticator Recovery................................................................................. 47
Session Attacks ............................................................................................ 47
9

Privacy Considerations ....................................................................................... 48
Privacy Risk Assessment.............................................................................. 48
Privacy Controls ............................................................................................ 48
Processing Limitation .................................................................................... 48
48
Agency-Specific Privacy Compliance............................................................ 49

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

10 Usability Considerations ..................................................................................... 50
Usability Considerations Common to Authenticators .................................... 51
Usability Considerations by Authenticator Type ............................................ 53
10.2.1 Memorized Secrets............................................................................. 53
10.2.2 Look-Up Secrets ................................................................................. 54
10.2.3 Out-of-Band ........................................................................................ 54
10.2.4 Single-Factor OTP Device .................................................................. 54
10.2.5 Multi-Factor OTP Device .................................................................... 55
10.2.6 Single-Factor Cryptographic Software ................................................ 56
10.2.7 Single-Factor Cryptographic Device ................................................... 56
10.2.8 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software .................................................. 56
10.2.9 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Device ..................................................... 57
Summary of Usability Considerations ........................................................... 57
Biometrics Usability Considerations .............................................................. 59
11 References............................................................................................................ 62
General References ...................................................................................... 62
Standards ..................................................................................................... 63
NIST Special Publications............................................................................. 64
Federal Information Processing Standards ................................................... 65
List of Appendices
Appendix A— Strength of Memorized Secrets ......................................................... 67
A.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 67
A.2 Length ........................................................................................................... 67
A.3 Complexity .................................................................................................... 68
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DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

A.4 Randomly-Chosen Secrets ........................................................................... 69
A.5 Summary ...................................................................................................... 69
List of Tables
Table 2-1 Normative and Informative Sections of SP 800-63B ....................................... 3
Table 4-1 AAL Summary of Requirements .................................................................... 11
Table 8-1 Authenticator Threats .................................................................................... 41
This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

Table 8-2 Mitigating Authenticator Threats.................................................................... 45

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DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Errata
This table contains changes that have been incorporated into Special Publication 800-63B. Errata
updates can include corrections, clarifications, or other minor changes in the publication that are
either editorial or substantive in nature.
Date
2017-12-01

Type
Editorial
Editorial

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

Substantive
Editorial

Editorial

Editorial
Editorial

Editorial
Substantive

2020-03-02

Editorial
Editorial
Substantive
Editorial
Editorial
Editorial
Editorial

Change
Updated AAL descriptions for
consistency with other text in document
Deleted “cryptographic” to consistently
reflect authenticator options at AAL3
Refined the requirements about
processing of attributes
Make language regarding activation
factors for multifactor authenticators
consistent
Recognize use of hardware TPM as
hardware crypto authenticator
Improve normative language on
authenticated protected channels for
biometrics
Changed “transaction” to “binding
transaction” to emphasize that
requirement doesn’t apply to
authentication transactions

Location
Introduction

Replaced out-of-context note at end of
section 7.2
Changed IdP to CSP to match
terminology used elsewhere in this
document
Corrected capitalization of Side Channel
Attack
Changed the title to processing
limitation; clarified the language,
incorporated privacy objectives
language, and specified that consent is
explicit
Added NISTIR 8062 as a reference
Corrected title of SP 800-63C
Clarified wording of verifier
impersonation resistance requirement
Emphasized use of key unlocked by
additional factor to sign nonce
Provided examples of risk-based
behavior observations
Removed redundant phrase and added
missing conjunction
Updated URL for reference [Blacklists]

§7.2

viii

§4.3
§4.4
§5.1.5.1, 5.1.8.1, and
5.1.9.1
§5.1.7.1, 5.1.9.1
§5.2.3

§6.1.1

Table 8-1

Table 8-2
§9.3

§11.1
§11.3
§4.3.2
§5.1.9.1
§5.2.2
§5.2.3
§11.1

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Purpose

This section is informative.
This document and its companion documents, Special Publication (SP) 800-63, SP 800-63A,
and SP 800-63C, provide technical guidelines to agencies for the implementation of digital
authentication.

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

This section is informative.

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

Digital identity is the unique representation of a subject engaged in an online transaction. A
digital identity is always unique in the context of a digital service, but does not necessarily need
to be traceable back to a specific real-life subject. In other words, accessing a digital service may
not mean that the underlying subject’s real-life representation is known. Identity proofing
establishes that a subject is actually who they claim to be. Digital authentication is the process of
determining the validity of one or more authenticators used to claim a digital identity.
Authentication establishes that a subject attempting to access a digital service is in control of the
technologies used to authenticate. For services in which return visits are applicable, successfully
authenticating provides reasonable risk-based assurances that the subject accessing the service
today is the same as the one who accessed the service previously. Digital identity presents a
technical challenge because it often involves the proofing of individuals over an open network
and always involves the authentication of individuals over an open network. This presents
multiple opportunities for impersonation and other attacks which can lead to fraudulent claims of
a subject’s digital identity.
The ongoing authentication of subscribers is central to the process of associating a subscriber
with their online activity. Subscriber authentication is performed by verifying that the claimant
controls one or more authenticators (called tokens in earlier versions of SP 800-63) associated
with a given subscriber. A successful authentication results in the assertion of an identifier, either
pseudonymous or non-pseudonymous, and optionally other identity information, to the relying
party (RP).
This document provides recommendations on types of authentication processes, including
choices of authenticators, that may be used at various Authenticator Assurance Levels (AALs). It
also provides recommendations on the lifecycle of authenticators, including revocation in the
event of loss or theft.
This technical guideline applies to digital authentication of subjects to systems over a network. It
does not address the authentication of a person for physical access (e.g., to a building), though
some credentials used for digital access may also be used for physical access authentication. This
technical guideline also requires that federal systems and service providers participating in
authentication protocols be authenticated to subscribers.
The strength of an authentication transaction is characterized by an ordinal measurement known
as the AAL. Stronger authentication (a higher AAL) requires malicious actors to have better
capabilities and expend greater resources in order to successfully subvert the authentication
process. Authentication at higher AALs can effectively reduce the risk of attacks. A high-level
summary of the technical requirements for each of the AALs is provided below; see Sections
4 and 5 of this document for specific normative requirements.
Authenticator Assurance Level 1: AAL1 provides some assurance that the claimant controls an
authenticator bound to the subscriber’s account. AAL1 requires either single-factor or multifactor authentication using a wide range of available authentication technologies. Successful
2

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

authentication requires that the claimant prove possession and control of the authenticator
through a secure authentication protocol.
Authenticator Assurance Level 2: AAL2 provides high confidence that the claimant controls
authenticator(s) bound to the subscriber’s account. Proof of possession and control of two
different authentication factors is required through secure authentication protocol(s). Approved
cryptographic techniques are required at AAL2 and above.

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

Authenticator Assurance Level 3: AAL3 provides very high confidence that the claimant
controls authenticator(s) bound to the subscriber’s account. Authentication at AAL3 is based on
proof of possession of a key through a cryptographic protocol. AAL3 authentication requires a
hardware-based authenticator and an authenticator that provides verifier impersonation
resistance; the same device may fulfill both these requirements. In order to authenticate at AAL3,
claimants are required to prove possession and control of two distinct authentication
factors through secure authentication protocol(s). Approved cryptographic techniques are
required.
The following table states which sections of the document are normative and which are
informative:
Table 2-1 Normative and Informative Sections of SP 800-63B

Section Name

Normative/Informative

1. Purpose

Informative

2. Introduction

Informative

3. Definitions and Abbreviations

Informative

4. Authenticator Assurance Levels

Normative

5. Authenticator and Verifier Requirements

Normative

6. Authenticator Lifecycle Management

Normative

7. Session Management

Normative

8. Threat and Security Considerations

Informative

9. Privacy Considerations

Informative

10. Usability Considerations

Informative

11. References

Informative

Appendix A — Strength of Memorized
Secrets

Informative

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Definitions and Abbreviations

See SP 800-63, Appendix A for a complete set of definitions and abbreviations.

This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Authenticator Assurance Levels

This section contains both normative and informative material.
To satisfy the requirements of a given AAL, a claimant SHALL be authenticated with at least a
given level of strength to be recognized as a subscriber. The result of an authentication process is
an identifier that SHALL be used each time that subscriber authenticates to that RP. The
identifier MAY be pseudonymous. Subscriber identifiers SHOULD NOT be reused for a
different subject but SHOULD be reused when a previously-enrolled subject is re-enrolled by the
CSP. Other attributes that identify the subscriber as a unique subject MAY also be provided.
This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

Detailed normative requirements for authenticators and verifiers at each AAL are provided in
Section 5.
See SP 800-63 Section 6.2 for details on how to choose the most appropriate AAL.
FIPS 140 requirements are satisfied by FIPS 140-2 or newer revisions.
At IAL1, it is possible that attributes are collected and made available by the digital identity
service. Any PII or other personal information — whether self-asserted or validated — requires
multi-factor authentication. Therefore, agencies SHALL select a minimum of AAL2 when selfasserted PII or other personal information is made available online.
Authenticator Assurance Level 1

This section is normative.
AAL1 provides some assurance that the claimant controls an authenticator bound to the
subscriber’s account. AAL1 requires either single-factor or multi-factor authentication using a
wide range of available authentication technologies. Successful authentication requires that the
claimant prove possession and control of the authenticator through a secure authentication
protocol.
4.1.1

Permitted Authenticator Types

AAL1 authentication SHALL occur by the use of any of the following authenticator types, which
are defined in Section 5:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Memorized Secret (Section 5.1.1)
Look-Up Secret (Section 5.1.2)
Out-of-Band Devices (Section 5.1.3)
Single-Factor One-Time Password (OTP) Device (Section 5.1.4)
Multi-Factor OTP Device (Section 5.1.5)
Single-Factor Cryptographic Software (Section 5.1.6)
Single-Factor Cryptographic Device (Section 5.1.7)
Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software (Section 5.1.8)
Multi-Factor Cryptographic Device (Section 5.1.9)
5

NIST SP 800-63B

4.1.2

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Authenticator and Verifier Requirements

Cryptographic authenticators used at AAL1 SHALL use approved cryptography. Software-based
authenticators that operate within the context of an operating system MAY, where applicable,
attempt to detect compromise (e.g., by malware) of the user endpoint in which they are running
and SHOULD NOT complete the operation when such a compromise is detected.
Communication between the claimant and verifier (using the primary channel in the case of an
out-of-band authenticator) SHALL be via an authenticated protected channel to provide
confidentiality of the authenticator output and resistance to man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks.
This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

Verifiers operated by government agencies at AAL1 SHALL be validated to meet the
requirements of FIPS 140 Level 1.
4.1.3

Reauthentication

Periodic reauthentication of subscriber sessions SHALL be performed as described in Section
7.2. At AAL1, reauthentication of the subscriber SHOULD be repeated at least once per 30 days
during an extended usage session, regardless of user activity. The session SHOULD be
terminated (i.e., logged out) when this time limit is reached.
4.1.4

Security Controls

The CSP SHALL employ appropriately-tailored security controls from the low baseline of
security controls defined in SP 800-53 or equivalent federal (e.g., FEDRAMP) or industry
standard. The CSP SHALL ensure that the minimum assurance-related controls for lowimpact systems, or equivalent, are satisfied.
4.1.5

Records Retention Policy

The CSP shall comply with its respective records retention policies in accordance with
applicable laws, regulations, and policies, including any National Archives and Records
Administration (NARA) records retention schedules that may apply. If the CSP opts to retain
records in the absence of any mandatory requirements, the CSP SHALL conduct a risk
management process, including assessments of privacy and security risks, to determine how long
records should be retained and SHALL inform the subscriber of that retention policy.
Authenticator Assurance Level 2

This section is normative.
AAL2 provides high confidence that the claimant controls authenticator(s) bound to the
subscriber’s account. Proof of possession and control of two distinct authentication factors is
required through secure authentication protocol(s). Approved cryptographic techniques are
required at AAL2 and above.

NIST SP 800-63B

4.2.1

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Permitted Authenticator Types

At AAL2, authentication SHALL occur by the use of either a multi-factor authenticator or a
combination of two single-factor authenticators. A multi-factor authenticator requires two factors
to execute a single authentication event, such as a cryptographically-secure device with an
integrated biometric sensor that is required to activate the device. Authenticator requirements are
specified in Section 5.
When a multi-factor authenticator is used, any of the following MAY be used:

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•
•
•

Multi-Factor OTP Device (Section 5.1.5)
Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software (Section 5.1.8)
Multi-Factor Cryptographic Device (Section 5.1.9)

When a combination of two single-factor authenticators is used, it SHALL include a Memorized
Secret authenticator (Section 5.1.1) and one possession-based (i.e., “something you have”)
authenticator from the following list:
•
•
•
•
•

Look-Up Secret (Section 5.1.2)
Out-of-Band Device (Section 5.1.3)
Single-Factor OTP Device (Section 5.1.4)
Single-Factor Cryptographic Software (Section 5.1.6)
Single-Factor Cryptographic Device (Section 5.1.7)
Note: When biometric authentication meets the requirements in Section 5.2.3, the device
has to be authenticated in addition to the biometric — a biometric is recognized as a factor,
but not recognized as an authenticator by itself. Therefore, when conducting authentication
with a biometric, it is unnecessary to use two authenticators because the associated device
serves as “something you have,” while the biometric serves as “something you are.”

4.2.2

Authenticator and Verifier Requirements

Cryptographic authenticators used at AAL2 SHALL use approved cryptography. Authenticators
procured by government agencies SHALL be validated to meet the requirements of FIPS
140 Level 1. Software-based authenticators that operate within the context of an operating
system MAY, where applicable, attempt to detect compromise of the platform in which they are
running (e.g., by malware) and SHOULD NOT complete the operation when such a compromise
is detected. At least one authenticator used at AAL2 SHALL be replay resistant as described
in Section 5.2.8. Authentication at AAL2 SHOULD demonstrate authentication intent from at
least one authenticator as discussed in Section 5.2.9.
Communication between the claimant and verifier (the primary channel in the case of an out-ofband authenticator) SHALL be via an authenticated protected channel to provide confidentiality
of the authenticator output and resistance to MitM attacks.
Verifiers operated by government agencies at AAL2 SHALL be validated to meet the
requirements of FIPS 140 Level 1.
7

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

When a device such as a smartphone is used in the authentication process, the unlocking of that
device (typically done using a PIN or biometric) SHALL NOT be considered one of the
authentication factors. Generally, it is not possible for a verifier to know that the device had been
locked or if the unlock process met the requirements for the relevant authenticator type.
When a biometric factor is used in authentication at AAL2, the performance requirements stated
in Section 5.2.3 SHALL be met, and the verifier SHOULD make a determination that the
biometric sensor and subsequent processing meet these requirements.
4.2.3

Reauthentication

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Periodic reauthentication of subscriber sessions SHALL be performed as described in Section
7.2. At AAL2, authentication of the subscriber SHALL be repeated at least once per 12 hours
during an extended usage session, regardless of user activity. Reauthentication of the subscriber
SHALL be repeated following any period of inactivity lasting 30 minutes or longer. The session
SHALL be terminated (i.e., logged out) when either of these time limits is reached.
Reauthentication of a session that has not yet reached its time limit MAY require only a
memorized secret or a biometric in conjunction with the still-valid session secret. The verifier
MAY prompt the user to cause activity just before the inactivity timeout.
4.2.4

Security Controls

The CSP SHALL employ appropriately-tailored security controls from the moderate baseline of
security controls defined in SP 800-53 or equivalent federal (e.g., FEDRAMP) or industry
standard. The CSP SHALL ensure that the minimum assurance-related controls for moderateimpact systems or equivalent are satisfied.
4.2.5

Records Retention Policy

The CSP shall comply with its respective records retention policies in accordance with
applicable laws, regulations, and policies, including any NARA records retention schedules that
may apply. If the CSP opts to retain records in the absence of any mandatory requirements, the
CSP SHALL conduct a risk management process, including assessments of privacy and security
risks to determine how long records should be retained and SHALL inform the subscriber of that
retention policy.
Authenticator Assurance Level 3

This section is normative.
AAL3 provides very high confidence that the claimant controls authenticator(s) bound to the
subscriber’s account. Authentication at AAL3 is based on proof of possession of a key through a
cryptographic protocol. AAL3 authentication SHALL use a hardware-based authenticator and an
authenticator that provides verifier impersonation resistance — the same device MAY fulfill
both these requirements. In order to authenticate at AAL3, claimants SHALL prove possession
and control of two distinct authentication factors through secure authentication
protocol(s). Approved cryptographic techniques are required.
8

NIST SP 800-63B

4.3.1

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Permitted Authenticator Types

AAL3 authentication SHALL occur by the use of one of a combination of authenticators
satisfying the requirements in Section 4.3. Possible combinations are:
•
•
•
•
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•
•

4.3.2

Multi-Factor Cryptographic Device (Section 5.1.9)
Single-Factor Cryptographic Device (Section 5.1.7) used in conjunction with Memorized
Secret (Section 5.1.1)
Multi-Factor OTP device (software or hardware) (Section 5.1.5) used in conjunction with
a Single-Factor Cryptographic Device (Section 5.1.7)
Multi-Factor OTP Device (hardware only) (Section 5.1.5) used in conjunction with a
Single-Factor Cryptographic Software (Section 5.1.6)
Single-Factor OTP Device (hardware only) (Section 5.1.4) used in conjunction with a
Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software Authenticator (Section 5.1.8)
Single-Factor OTP Device (hardware only) (Section 5.1.4) used in conjunction with a
Single-Factor Cryptographic Software Authenticator (Section 5.1.6) and a Memorized
Secret (Section 5.1.1)
Authenticator and Verifier Requirements

Communication between the claimant and verifier SHALL be via an authenticated protected
channel to provide confidentiality of the authenticator output and resistance to MitM attacks. At
least one cryptographic device authenticator used at AAL3 SHALL be verifier impersonation
resistant as described in Section 5.2.5 and SHALL be replay resistant as described in Section
5.2.8. All authentication and reauthentication processes at AAL3 SHALL demonstrate
authentication intent from at least one authenticator as described in Section 5.2.9.
Multi-factor authenticators used at AAL3 SHALL be hardware cryptographic modules validated
at FIPS 140 Level 2 or higher overall with at least FIPS 140 Level 3 physical security. Singlefactor cryptographic devices used at AAL3 SHALL be validated at FIPS 140 Level 1 or higher
overall with at least FIPS 140 Level 3 physical security.
Verifiers at AAL3 SHALL be validated at FIPS 140 Level 1 or higher.
Verifiers at AAL3 SHALL be verifier compromise resistant as described in Section 5.2.7 with
respect to at least one authentication factor.
Hardware-based authenticators and verifiers at AAL3 SHOULD resist relevant side-channel
(e.g., timing and power-consumption analysis) attacks. Relevant side-channel attacks SHALL be
determined by a risk assessment performed by the CSP.
When a device such a smartphone is used in the authentication process — presuming that the
device is able to meet the requirements above — the unlocking of that device SHALL NOT be
considered to satisfy one of the authentication factors. This is because it is generally not possible
for verifier to know that the device had been locked nor whether the unlock process met the
requirements for the relevant authenticator type.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

When a biometric factor is used in authentication at AAL3, the verifier SHALL make a
determination that the biometric sensor and subsequent processing meet the performance
requirements stated in Section 5.2.3.
4.3.3

Reauthentication

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Periodic reauthentication of subscriber sessions SHALL be performed as described in Section
7.2. At AAL3, authentication of the subscriber SHALL be repeated at least once per 12 hours
during an extended usage session, regardless of user activity, as described in Section 7.2.
Reauthentication of the subscriber SHALL be repeated following any period of inactivity lasting
15 minutes or longer. Reauthentication SHALL use both authentication factors. The session
SHALL be terminated (i.e., logged out) when either of these time limits is reached. The verifier
MAY prompt the user to cause activity just before the inactivity timeout.
4.3.4

Security Controls

The CSP SHALL employ appropriately-tailored security controls from the high baseline of
security controls defined in SP 800-53 or an equivalent federal (e.g., FEDRAMP) or industry
standard. The CSP SHALL ensure that the minimum assurance-related controls for highimpact systems or equivalent are satisfied.
4.3.5

Records Retention Policy

The CSP shall comply with its respective records retention policies in accordance with
applicable laws, regulations, and policies, including any NARA records retention schedules that
may apply. If the CSP opts to retain records in the absence of any mandatory requirements, the
CSP SHALL conduct a risk management process, including assessments of privacy and security
risks, to determine how long records should be retained and SHALL inform the subscriber of that
retention policy.
Privacy Requirements

This section is normative.
The CSP SHALL employ appropriately-tailored privacy controls defined in SP 800-53 or
equivalent industry standard.
If CSPs process attributes for purposes other than identity proofing, authentication, or attribute
assertion (collectively “identity service”), related fraud mitigation, or to comply with law or legal
process, CSPs SHALL implement measures to maintain predictability and manageability
commensurate with the privacy risk arising from the additional processing. Measures MAY
include providing clear notice, obtaining subscriber consent, or enabling selective use or
disclosure of attributes. When CSPs use consent measures, CSPs SHALL NOT make consent for
the additional processing a condition of the identity service.
Regardless of whether the CSP is an agency or private sector provider, the following
requirements apply to an agency offering or using the authentication service:

NIST SP 800-63B

•

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

The agency SHALL consult with their Senior Agency Official for Privacy (SAOP) and
conduct an analysis to determine whether the collection of PII to issue or maintain
authenticators triggers the requirements of the Privacy Act of 1974 [Privacy
Act] (see Section 9.4).
o The agency SHALL publish a System of Records Notice (SORN) to cover such
collections, as applicable.
o The agency SHALL consult with their SAOP and conduct an analysis to
determine whether the collection of PII to issue or maintain authenticators triggers
the requirements of the E-Government Act of 2002 [EGov].
o The agency SHALL publish a Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA) to cover such
collection, as applicable.

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Summary of Requirements

This section is informative.
Table 4-1 summarizes the requirements for each of the AALs:
Table 4-1 AAL Summary of Requirements

Requirement

Permitted
Authenticator
Types

FIPS 140
Verification

Reauthentication

AAL1

AAL2

AAL3

Memorized Secret;
Look-Up Secret;
Out-of-Band;
SF OTP Device;
MF OTP Device;
SF Crypto
Software;
SF Crypto Device;
MF Crypto
Software;
MF Crypto Device

MF OTP Device;
MF Crypto Software;
MF Crypto Device;
or Memorized Secret
plus:
• Look-Up Secret
• Out-of-Band
• SF OTP Device
• SF Crypto Software
• SF Crypto Device

MF Crypto Device;
SF Crypto Device plus
Memorized Secret;
SF OTP Device plus
MF Crypto Device or
Software;
SF OTP Device plus
SF Crypto Software
plus Memorized Secret

Level 1
(Government
agency verifiers)

Level 1 (Government
agency authenticators
and verifiers)

Level 2 overall (MF
authenticators)
Level 1 overall
(verifiers and SF
Crypto Devices)
Level 3 physical
security (all
authenticators)

30 days

12 hours or 30
minutes inactivity;
MAY use one
authentication factor

12 hours or 15 minutes
inactivity; SHALL use
both authentication
factors

NIST SP 800-63B

Requirement

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT
AAL1

AAL2

AAL3

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Security Controls

SP 800-53 Low
Baseline (or
equivalent)

SP 800-53 Moderate
Baseline (or
equivalent)

SP 800-53 High
Baseline (or
equivalent)

MitM Resistance

Required

VerifierImpersonation
Resistance

Not required

Required

VerifierCompromise
Resistance

Not required

Required

Replay Resistance

Not required

Required

Authentication
Intent

Not required

Recommended

Required

Records Retention
Policy

Required

Privacy Controls

Required

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Authenticator and Verifier Requirements

This section is normative.
This section provides the detailed requirements specific to each type of authenticator. With the
exception of reauthentication requirements specified in Section 4 and the requirement for verifier
impersonation resistance at AAL3 described in Section 5.2.5, the technical requirements for each
of the authenticator types are the same regardless of the AAL at which the authenticator is used.
Requirements by Authenticator Type
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5.1.1

Memorized Secrets

A Memorized Secret authenticator — commonly referred to as a password or, if
numeric, a PIN — is a secret value intended to be chosen and memorized by the
user. Memorized secrets need to be of sufficient complexity and secrecy that it
would be impractical for an attacker to guess or otherwise discover the correct
secret value. A memorized secret is something you know.
5.1.1.1 Memorized Secret Authenticators

Memorized secrets SHALL be at least 8 characters in length if chosen by the subscriber.
Memorized secrets chosen randomly by the CSP or verifier SHALL be at least 6 characters in
length and MAY be entirely numeric. If the CSP or verifier disallows a chosen memorized secret
based on its appearance on a blacklist of compromised values, the subscriber SHALL be required
to choose a different memorized secret. No other complexity requirements for memorized secrets
SHOULD be imposed. A rationale for this is presented in Appendix A Strength of Memorized
Secrets.
5.1.1.2 Memorized Secret Verifiers

Verifiers SHALL require subscriber-chosen memorized secrets to be at least 8 characters in
length. Verifiers SHOULD permit subscriber-chosen memorized secrets at least 64 characters in
length. All printing ASCII [RFC 20] characters as well as the space character SHOULD be
acceptable in memorized secrets. Unicode [ISO/ISC 10646] characters SHOULD be accepted as
well. To make allowances for likely mistyping, verifiers MAY replace multiple consecutive
space characters with a single space character prior to verification, provided that the result is at
least 8 characters in length. Truncation of the secret SHALL NOT be performed. For purposes of
the above length requirements, each Unicode code point SHALL be counted as a single
character.
If Unicode characters are accepted in memorized secrets, the verifier SHOULD apply the
Normalization Process for Stabilized Strings using either the NFKC or NFKD normalization
defined in Section 12.1 of Unicode Standard Annex 15 [UAX 15]. This process is applied before
hashing the byte string representing the memorized secret. Subscribers choosing memorized
secrets containing Unicode characters SHOULD be advised that some characters may be
represented differently by some endpoints, which can affect their ability to authenticate
successfully.
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DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
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Memorized secrets that are randomly chosen by the CSP (e.g., at enrollment) or by the verifier
(e.g., when a user requests a new PIN) SHALL be at least 6 characters in length and SHALL be
generated using an approved random bit generator [SP 800-90Ar1].
Memorized secret verifiers SHALL NOT permit the subscriber to store a “hint” that is accessible
to an unauthenticated claimant. Verifiers SHALL NOT prompt subscribers to use specific types
of information (e.g., “What was the name of your first pet?”) when choosing memorized secrets.
When processing requests to establish and change memorized secrets, verifiers SHALL compare
the prospective secrets against a list that contains values known to be commonly-used, expected,
or compromised. For example, the list MAY include, but is not limited to:
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•
•
•
•

Passwords obtained from previous breach corpuses.
Dictionary words.
Repetitive or sequential characters (e.g. ‘aaaaaa’, ‘1234abcd’).
Context-specific words, such as the name of the service, the username, and derivatives
thereof.

If the chosen secret is found in the list, the CSP or verifier SHALL advise the subscriber that
they need to select a different secret, SHALL provide the reason for rejection, and SHALL
require the subscriber to choose a different value.
Verifiers SHOULD offer guidance to the subscriber, such as a password-strength meter [Meters],
to assist the user in choosing a strong memorized secret. This is particularly important following
the rejection of a memorized secret on the above list as it discourages trivial modification of
listed (and likely very weak) memorized secrets [Blacklists].
Verifiers SHALL implement a rate-limiting mechanism that effectively limits the number of
failed authentication attempts that can be made on the subscriber’s account as described
in Section 5.2.2.
Verifiers SHOULD NOT impose other composition rules (e.g., requiring mixtures of different
character types or prohibiting consecutively repeated characters) for memorized secrets.
Verifiers SHOULD NOT require memorized secrets to be changed arbitrarily (e.g., periodically).
However, verifiers SHALL force a change if there is evidence of compromise of the
authenticator.
Verifiers SHOULD permit claimants to use “paste” functionality when entering a memorized
secret. This facilitates the use of password managers, which are widely used and in many cases
increase the likelihood that users will choose stronger memorized secrets.
In order to assist the claimant in successfully entering a memorized secret, the verifier SHOULD
offer an option to display the secret — rather than a series of dots or asterisks — until it is
entered. This allows the claimant to verify their entry if they are in a location where their screen
is unlikely to be observed. The verifier MAY also permit the user’s device to display individual
entered characters for a short time after each character is typed to verify correct entry. This is
particularly applicable on mobile devices.
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The verifier SHALL use approved encryption and an authenticated protected channel when
requesting memorized secrets in order to provide resistance to eavesdropping and MitM attacks.

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Verifiers SHALL store memorized secrets in a form that is resistant to offline attacks.
Memorized secrets SHALL be salted and hashed using a suitable one-way key derivation
function. Key derivation functions take a password, a salt, and a cost factor as inputs then
generate a password hash. Their purpose is to make each password guessing trial by an attacker
who has obtained a password hash file expensive and therefore the cost of a guessing attack high
or prohibitive. Examples of suitable key derivation functions include Password-based Key
Derivation Function 2 (PBKDF2) [SP 800-132] and Balloon [BALLOON]. A memory-hard
function SHOULD be used because it increases the cost of an attack. The key derivation function
SHALL use an approved one-way function such as Keyed Hash Message Authentication Code
(HMAC) [FIPS 198-1], any approved hash function in SP 800-107, Secure Hash Algorithm 3
(SHA-3) [FIPS 202], CMAC [SP 800-38B] or Keccak Message Authentication Code (KMAC),
Customizable SHAKE (cSHAKE), or ParallelHash [SP 800-185]. The chosen output length of
the key derivation function SHOULD be the same as the length of the underlying one-way
function output.
The salt SHALL be at least 32 bits in length and be chosen arbitrarily so as to minimize salt
value collisions among stored hashes. Both the salt value and the resulting hash SHALL be
stored for each subscriber using a memorized secret authenticator.
For PBKDF2, the cost factor is an iteration count: the more times the PBKDF2 function is
iterated, the longer it takes to compute the password hash. Therefore, the iteration count
SHOULD be as large as verification server performance will allow, typically at least 10,000
iterations.
In addition, verifiers SHOULD perform an additional iteration of a key derivation function using
a salt value that is secret and known only to the verifier. This salt value, if used, SHALL be
generated by an approved random bit generator [SP 800-90Ar1] and provide at least the
minimum security strength specified in the latest revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the
date of this publication). The secret salt value SHALL be stored separately from the hashed
memorized secrets (e.g., in a specialized device like a hardware security module). With this
additional iteration, brute-force attacks on the hashed memorized secrets are impractical as long
as the secret salt value remains secret.
5.1.2

Look-Up Secrets

A look-up secret authenticator is a physical or electronic record that stores a set
of secrets shared between the claimant and the CSP. The claimant uses the
authenticator to look up the appropriate secret(s) needed to respond to a prompt
from the verifier. For example, the verifier may ask a claimant to provide a
specific subset of the numeric or character strings printed on a card in table
format. A common application of look-up secrets is the use of "recovery keys"
stored by the subscriber for use in the event another authenticator is lost or malfunctions. A lookup secret is something you have.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

5.1.2.1 Look-Up Secret Authenticators

CSPs creating look-up secret authenticators SHALL use an approved random bit generator [SP
800-90Ar1] to generate the list of secrets and SHALL deliver the authenticator securely to the
subscriber. Look-up secrets SHALL have at least 20 bits of entropy.
Look-up secrets MAY be distributed by the CSP in person, by postal mail to the subscriber’s
address of record, or by online distribution. If distributed online, look-up secrets SHALL be
distributed over a secure channel in accordance with the post-enrollment binding requirements
in Section 6.1.2.
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If the authenticator uses look-up secrets sequentially from a list, the subscriber MAY dispose of
used secrets, but only after a successful authentication.
5.1.2.2 Look-Up Secret Verifiers

Verifiers of look-up secrets SHALL prompt the claimant for the next secret from their
authenticator or for a specific (e.g., numbered) secret. A given secret from an authenticator
SHALL be used successfully only once. If the look-up secret is derived from a grid card, each
cell of the grid SHALL be used only once.
Verifiers SHALL store look-up secrets in a form that is resistant to offline attacks. Look-up
secrets having at least 112 bits of entropy SHALL be hashed with an approved one-way function
as described in Section 5.1.1.2. Look-up secrets with fewer than 112 bits of entropy SHALL be
salted and hashed using a suitable one-way key derivation function, also described in Section
5.1.1.2. The salt value SHALL be at least 32 in bits in length and arbitrarily chosen so as to
minimize salt value collisions among stored hashes. Both the salt value and the resulting hash
SHALL be stored for each look-up secret.
For look-up secrets that have less than 64 bits of entropy, the verifier SHALL implement a ratelimiting mechanism that effectively limits the number of failed authentication attempts that can
be made on the subscriber’s account as described in Section 5.2.2.
The verifier SHALL use approved encryption and an authenticated protected channel when
requesting look-up secrets in order to provide resistance to eavesdropping and MitM attacks.
5.1.3

Out-of-Band Devices

An out-of-band authenticator is a physical device that is uniquely addressable
and can communicate securely with the verifier over a distinct communications
channel, referred to as the secondary channel. The device is possessed and
controlled by the claimant and supports private communication over this
secondary channel, separate from the primary channel for e-authentication. An
out-of-band authenticator is something you have.
The out-of-band authenticator can operate in one of the following ways:

NIST SP 800-63B

•

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

The claimant transfers a secret received by the out-of-band device via the secondary
channel to the verifier using the primary channel. For example, the claimant may receive
the secret on their mobile device and type it (typically a 6-digit code) into their
authentication session.
The claimant transfers a secret received via the primary channel to the out-of-band device
for transmission to the verifier via the secondary channel. For example, the claimant may
view the secret on their authentication session and either type it into an app on their
mobile device or use a technology such as a barcode or QR code to effect the transfer.
The claimant compares secrets received from the primary channel and the secondary
channel and confirms the authentication via the secondary channel.

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The secret's purpose is to securely bind the authentication operation on the primary and
secondary channel. When the response is via the primary communication channel, the secret also
establishes the claimant's control of the out-of-band device.
5.1.3.1 Out-of-Band Authenticators

The out-of-band authenticator SHALL establish a separate channel with the verifier in order to
retrieve the out-of-band secret or authentication request. This channel is considered to be out-ofband with respect to the primary communication channel (even if it terminates on the same
device) provided the device does not leak information from one channel to the other without the
authorization of the claimant.
The out-of-band device SHOULD be uniquely addressable and communication over the
secondary channel SHALL be encrypted unless sent via the public switched telephone network
(PSTN). For additional authenticator requirements specific to the PSTN, see Section 5.1.3.3.
Methods that do not prove possession of a specific device, such as voice-over-IP (VOIP) or
email, SHALL NOT be used for out-of-band authentication.
The out-of-band authenticator SHALL uniquely authenticate itself in one of the following ways
when communicating with the verifier:
•
•

Establish an authenticated protected channel to the verifier using approved cryptography.
The key used SHALL be stored in suitably secure storage available to the authenticator
application (e.g., keychain storage, TPM, TEE, secure element).
Authenticate to a public mobile telephone network using a SIM card or equivalent that
uniquely identifies the device. This method SHALL only be used if a secret is being sent
from the verifier to the out-of-band device via the PSTN (SMS or voice).

If a secret is sent by the verifier to the out-of-band device, the device SHOULD NOT display the
authentication secret while it is locked by the owner (i.e., requires an entry of a PIN, passcode, or
biometric to view). However, authenticators SHOULD indicate the receipt of an authentication
secret on a locked device.
If the out-of-band authenticator sends an approval message over the secondary communication
channel — rather than by the claimant transferring a received secret to the primary
communication channel — it SHALL do one of the following:
17

NIST SP 800-63B

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DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
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The authenticator SHALL accept transfer of the secret from the primary channel which it
SHALL send to the verifier over the secondary channel to associate the approval with the
authentication transaction. The claimant MAY perform the transfer manually or use a
technology such as a barcode or QR code to effect the transfer.
The authenticator SHALL present a secret received via the secondary channel from the
verifier and prompt the claimant to verify the consistency of that secret with the primary
channel, prior to accepting a yes/no response from the claimant. It SHALL then send that
response to the verifier.

5.1.3.2 Out-of-Band Verifiers
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For additional verification requirements specific to the PSTN, see Section 5.1.3.3.
If out-of-band verification is to be made using a secure application, such as on a smart phone, the
verifier MAY send a push notification to that device. The verifier then waits for the
establishment of an authenticated protected channel and verifies the authenticator’s identifying
key. The verifier SHALL NOT store the identifying key itself, but SHALL use a verification
method (e.g., an approved hash function or proof of possession of the identifying key) to
uniquely identify the authenticator. Once authenticated, the verifier transmits the authentication
secret to the authenticator.
Depending on the type of out-of-band authenticator, one of the following SHALL take place:
•

•

Transfer of secret to primary channel: The verifier MAY signal the device containing the
subscriber’s authenticator to indicate readiness to authenticate. It SHALL then transmit a
random secret to the out-of-band authenticator. The verifier SHALL then wait for the
secret to be returned on the primary communication channel.
Transfer of secret to secondary channel: The verifier SHALL display a random
authentication secret to the claimant via the primary channel. It SHALL then wait for the
secret to be returned on the secondary channel from the claimant’s out-of-band
authenticator.
Verification of secrets by claimant: The verifier SHALL display a random authentication
secret to the claimant via the primary channel, and SHALL send the same secret to the
out-of-band authenticator via the secondary channel for presentation to the claimant. It
SHALL then wait for an approval (or disapproval) message via the secondary channel.

In all cases, the authentication SHALL be considered invalid if not completed within 10 minutes.
In order to provide replay resistance as described in Section 5.2.8, verifiers SHALL accept a
given authentication secret only once during the validity period.
The verifier SHALL generate random authentication secrets with at least 20 bits of entropy using
an approved random bit generator [SP 800-90Ar1]. If the authentication secret has less than 64
bits of entropy, the verifier SHALL implement a rate-limiting mechanism that effectively limits
the number of failed authentication attempts that can be made on the subscriber’s account as
described in Section 5.2.2.

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5.1.3.3 Authentication using the Public Switched Telephone Network

Use of the PSTN for out-of-band verification is RESTRICTED as described in this section and
in Section 5.2.10. If out-of-band verification is to be made using the PSTN, the verifier SHALL
verify that the pre-registered telephone number being used is associated with a specific physical
device. Changing the pre-registered telephone number is considered to be the binding of a new
authenticator and SHALL only occur as described in Section 6.1.2.
Verifiers SHOULD consider risk indicators such as device swap, SIM change, number porting,
or other abnormal behavior before using the PSTN to deliver an out-of-band authentication
secret.
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Note: Consistent with the restriction of authenticators in Section 5.2.10, NIST may
adjust the RESTRICTED status of the PSTN over time based on the evolution of the
threat landscape and the technical operation of the PSTN.
5.1.4

Single-Factor OTP Device

A single-factor OTP device generates OTPs. This category includes hardware
devices and software-based OTP generators installed on devices such as mobile
phones. These devices have an embedded secret that is used as the seed for
generation of OTPs and does not require activation through a second factor. The
OTP is displayed on the device and manually input for transmission to the
verifier, thereby proving possession and control of the device. An OTP device
may, for example, display 6 characters at a time. A single-factor OTP device is something you
have.
Single-factor OTP devices are similar to look-up secret authenticators with the exception that the
secrets are cryptographically and independently generated by the authenticator and verifier and
compared by the verifier. The secret is computed based on a nonce that may be time-based or
from a counter on the authenticator and verifier.
5.1.4.1 Single-Factor OTP Authenticators

Single-factor OTP authenticators contain two persistent values. The first is a symmetric key that
persists for the device’s lifetime. The second is a nonce that is either changed each time the
authenticator is used or is based on a real-time clock.
The secret key and its algorithm SHALL provide at least the minimum security strength
specified in the latest revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the date of this publication). The
nonce SHALL be of sufficient length to ensure that it is unique for each operation of the device
over its lifetime. OTP authenticators — particularly software-based OTP generators —
SHOULD discourage and SHALL NOT facilitate the cloning of the secret key onto multiple
devices.

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The authenticator output is obtained by using an approved block cipher or hash function to
combine the key and nonce in a secure manner. The authenticator output MAY be truncated to as
few as 6 decimal digits (approximately 20 bits of entropy).
If the nonce used to generate the authenticator output is based on a real-time clock, the nonce
SHALL be changed at least once every 2 minutes. The OTP value associated with a given nonce
SHALL be accepted only once.
5.1.4.2 Single-Factor OTP Verifiers

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Single-factor OTP verifiers effectively duplicate the process of generating the OTP used by the
authenticator. As such, the symmetric keys used by authenticators are also present in the verifier,
and SHALL be strongly protected against compromise.
When a single-factor OTP authenticator is being associated with a subscriber account, the
verifier or associated CSP SHALL use approved cryptography to either generate and exchange
or to obtain the secrets required to duplicate the authenticator output.
The verifier SHALL use approved encryption and an authenticated protected channel when
collecting the OTP in order to provide resistance to eavesdropping and MitM attacks. Timebased OTPs [RFC 6238] SHALL have a defined lifetime that is determined by the expected
clock drift — in either direction — of the authenticator over its lifetime, plus allowance for
network delay and user entry of the OTP. In order to provide replay resistance as described
in Section 5.2.8, verifiers SHALL accept a given time-based OTP only once during the validity
period.
If the authenticator output has less than 64 bits of entropy, the verifier SHALL implement a ratelimiting mechanism that effectively limits the number of failed authentication attempts that can
be made on the subscriber’s account as described in Section 5.2.2.
5.1.5

Multi-Factor OTP Devices

A multi-factor OTP device generates OTPs for use in authentication after
activation through an additional authentication factor. This includes hardware
devices and software-based OTP generators installed on devices such as mobile
phones. The second factor of authentication may be achieved through some kind
of integral entry pad, an integral biometric (e.g., fingerprint) reader, or a direct
computer interface (e.g., USB port). The OTP is displayed on the device and
manually input for transmission to the verifier. For example, an OTP device may display 6
characters at a time, thereby proving possession and control of the device. The multi-factor OTP
device is something you have, and it SHALL be activated by either something you
know or something you are.
5.1.5.1 Multi-Factor OTP Authenticators

Multi-factor OTP authenticators operate in a similar manner to single-factor OTP authenticators
(see Section 5.1.4.1), except that they require the entry of either a memorized secret or the use of

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a biometric to obtain the OTP from the authenticator. Each use of the authenticator SHALL
require the input of the additional factor.
In addition to activation information, multi-factor OTP authenticators contain two persistent
values. The first is a symmetric key that persists for the device’s lifetime. The second is a nonce
that is either changed each time the authenticator is used or is based on a real-time clock.

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The secret key and its algorithm SHALL provide at least the minimum security strength
specified in the latest revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the date of this publication). The
nonce SHALL be of sufficient length to ensure that it is unique for each operation of the device
over its lifetime. OTP authenticators — particularly software-based OTP generators —
SHOULD discourage and SHALL NOT facilitate the cloning of the secret key onto multiple
devices.
The authenticator output is obtained by using an approved block cipher or hash function to
combine the key and nonce in a secure manner. The authenticator output MAY be truncated to as
few as 6 decimal digits (approximately 20 bits of entropy).
If the nonce used to generate the authenticator output is based on a real-time clock, the nonce
SHALL be changed at least once every 2 minutes. The OTP value associated with a given nonce
SHALL be accepted only once.
Any memorized secret used by the authenticator for activation SHALL be a randomly-chosen
numeric secret at least 6 decimal digits in length or other memorized secret meeting the
requirements of Section 5.1.1.2 and SHALL be rate limited as specified in Section 5.2.2. A
biometric activation factor SHALL meet the requirements of Section 5.2.3, including limits on
the number of consecutive authentication failures.
The unencrypted key and activation secret or biometric sample — and any biometric data
derived from the biometric sample such as a probe produced through signal processing —
SHALL be zeroized immediately after an OTP has been generated.
5.1.5.2 Multi-Factor OTP Verifiers

Multi-factor OTP verifiers effectively duplicate the process of generating the OTP used by the
authenticator, but without the requirement that a second factor be provided. As such, the
symmetric keys used by authenticators SHALL be strongly protected against compromise.
When a multi-factor OTP authenticator is being associated with a subscriber account, the verifier
or associated CSP SHALL use approved cryptography to either generate and exchange or to
obtain the secrets required to duplicate the authenticator output. The verifier or CSP SHALL also
establish, via the authenticator source, that the authenticator is a multi-factor device. In the
absence of a trusted statement that it is a multi-factor device, the verifier SHALL treat the
authenticator as single-factor, in accordance with Section 5.1.4.
The verifier SHALL use approved encryption and an authenticated protected channel when
collecting the OTP in order to provide resistance to eavesdropping and MitM attacks. Timebased OTPs [RFC 6238] SHALL have a defined lifetime that is determined by the expected
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clock drift — in either direction — of the authenticator over its lifetime, plus allowance for
network delay and user entry of the OTP. In order to provide replay resistance as described
in Section 5.2.8, verifiers SHALL accept a given time-based OTP only once during the validity
period. In the event a claimant’s authentication is denied due to duplicate use of an OTP,
verifiers MAY warn the claimant in case an attacker has been able to authenticate in advance.
Verifiers MAY also warn a subscriber in an existing session of the attempted duplicate use of an
OTP.

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If the authenticator output or activation secret has less than 64 bits of entropy, the verifier
SHALL implement a rate-limiting mechanism that effectively limits the number of failed
authentication attempts that can be made on the subscriber’s account as described in Section
5.2.2. A biometric activation factor SHALL meet the requirements of Section 5.2.3, including
limits on the number of consecutive authentication failures.
5.1.6

Single-Factor Cryptographic Software

A single-factor software cryptographic authenticator is a cryptographic key
stored on disk or some other "soft" media. Authentication is accomplished by
proving possession and control of the key. The authenticator output is highly
dependent on the specific cryptographic protocol, but it is generally some type
of signed message. The single-factor software cryptographic authenticator
is something you have.
5.1.6.1 Single-Factor Cryptographic Software Authenticators

Single-factor software cryptographic authenticators encapsulate one or more secret keys
unique to the authenticator. The key SHALL be stored in suitably secure storage available to the
authenticator application (e.g., keychain storage, TPM, or TEE if available). The key SHALL be
strongly protected against unauthorized disclosure by the use of access controls that limit access
to the key to only those software components on the device requiring access. Single-factor
cryptographic software authenticators SHOULD discourage and SHALL NOT facilitate the
cloning of the secret key onto multiple devices.
5.1.6.2 Single-Factor Cryptographic Software Verifiers

The requirements for a single-factor cryptographic software verifier are identical to those for a
single-factor cryptographic device verifier, described in Section 5.1.7.2.
5.1.7

Single-Factor Cryptographic Devices

A single-factor cryptographic device is a hardware device that performs
cryptographic operations using protected cryptographic key(s) and provides the
authenticator output via direct connection to the user endpoint. The device uses
embedded symmetric or asymmetric cryptographic keys, and does not require
activation through a second factor of authentication. Authentication is
accomplished by proving possession of the device via the authentication
protocol. The authenticator output is provided by direct connection to the user endpoint and is

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highly dependent on the specific cryptographic device and protocol, but it is typically some type
of signed message. A single-factor cryptographic device is something you have.
5.1.7.1 Single-Factor Cryptographic Device Authenticators

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Single-factor cryptographic device authenticators encapsulate one or more secret keys unique to
the device that SHALL NOT be exportable (i.e., cannot be removed from the device). The
authenticator operates by signing a challenge nonce presented through a direct computer
interface (e.g., a USB port). Alternatively, the authenticator could be a suitably secure processor
integrated with the user endpoint itself (e.g., a hardware TPM). Although cryptographic devices
contain software, they differ from cryptographic software authenticators in that all embedded
software is under control of the CSP or issuer and that the entire authenticator is subject to all
applicable FIPS 140 requirements at the AAL being authenticated.
The secret key and its algorithm SHALL provide at least the minimum security length specified
in the latest revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the date of this publication). The challenge
nonce SHALL be at least 64 bits in length. Approved cryptography SHALL be used.
Single-factor cryptographic device authenticators SHOULD require a physical input (e.g., the
pressing of a button) in order to operate. This provides defense against unintended operation of
the device, which might occur if the endpoint to which it is connected is compromised.
5.1.7.2 Single-Factor Cryptographic Device Verifiers

Single-factor cryptographic device verifiers generate a challenge nonce, send it to the
corresponding authenticator, and use the authenticator output to verify possession of the device.
The authenticator output is highly dependent on the specific cryptographic device and protocol,
but it is generally some type of signed message.
The verifier has either symmetric or asymmetric cryptographic keys corresponding to each
authenticator. While both types of keys SHALL be protected against modification, symmetric
keys SHALL additionally be protected against unauthorized disclosure.
The challenge nonce SHALL be at least 64 bits in length, and SHALL either be unique over the
authenticator’s lifetime or statistically unique (i.e., generated using an approved random bit
generator [SP 800-90Ar1]). The verification operation SHALL use approved cryptography.
5.1.8

Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software

A multi-factor software cryptographic authenticator is a cryptographic key
stored on disk or some other "soft" media that requires activation through a
second factor of authentication. Authentication is accomplished by proving
possession and control of the key. The authenticator output is highly dependent
on the specific cryptographic protocol, but it is generally some type of signed
message. The multi-factor software cryptographic authenticator is something
you have, and it SHALL be activated by either something you know or something you are.

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5.1.8.1 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software Authenticators

Multi-factor software cryptographic authenticators encapsulate one or more secret keys unique to
the authenticator and accessible only through the input of an additional factor, either a
memorized secret or a biometric. The key SHOULD be stored in suitably secure storage
available to the authenticator application (e.g., keychain storage, TPM, TEE). The key SHALL
be strongly protected against unauthorized disclosure by the use of access controls that limit
access to the key to only those software components on the device requiring access. Multi-factor
cryptographic software authenticators SHOULD discourage and SHALL NOT facilitate the
cloning of the secret key onto multiple devices.
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Each authentication operation using the authenticator SHALL require the input of both factors.
Any memorized secret used by the authenticator for activation SHALL be a randomly-chosen
numeric value at least 6 decimal digits in length or other memorized secret meeting the
requirements of Section 5.1.1.2 and SHALL be rate limited as specified in Section 5.2.2. A
biometric activation factor SHALL meet the requirements of Section 5.2.3, including limits on
the number of consecutive authentication failures.
The unencrypted key and activation secret or biometric sample — and any biometric data
derived from the biometric sample such as a probe produced through signal processing —
SHALL be zeroized immediately after an authentication transaction has taken place.
5.1.8.2 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software Verifiers

The requirements for a multi-factor cryptographic software verifier are identical to those for a
single-factor cryptographic device verifier, described in Section 5.1.7.2. Verification of the
output from a multi-factor cryptographic software authenticator proves use of the activation
factor.
5.1.9

Multi-Factor Cryptographic Devices

A multi-factor cryptographic device is a hardware device that performs
cryptographic operations using one or more protected cryptographic keys and
requires activation through a second authentication factor. Authentication is
accomplished by proving possession of the device and control of the key. The
authenticator output is provided by direct connection to the user endpoint and is
highly dependent on the specific cryptographic device and protocol, but it is
typically some type of signed message. The multi-factor cryptographic device is something you
have, and it SHALL be activated by either something you know or something you are.
5.1.9.1 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Device Authenticators

Multi-factor cryptographic device authenticators use tamper-resistant hardware to encapsulate
one or more secret keys unique to the authenticator and accessible only through the input of an
additional factor, either a memorized secret or a biometric. The authenticator operates by using a
private key that was unlocked by the additional factor to sign a challenge nonce presented
through a direct computer interface (e.g., a USB port). Alternatively, the authenticator could be a
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suitably secure processor integrated with the user endpoint itself (e.g., a hardware TPM).
Although cryptographic devices contain software, they differ from cryptographic software
authenticators in that all embedded software is under control of the CSP or issuer, and that the
entire authenticator is subject to any applicable FIPS 140 requirements at the selected AAL.
The secret key and its algorithm SHALL provide at least the minimum security length specified
in the latest revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the date of this publication). The challenge
nonce SHALL be at least 64 bits in length. Approved cryptography SHALL be used.

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Each authentication operation using the authenticator SHOULD require the input of the
additional factor. Input of the additional factor MAY be accomplished via either direct input on
the device or via a hardware connection (e.g., USB, smartcard).
Any memorized secret used by the authenticator for activation SHALL be a randomly-chosen
numeric value at least 6 decimal digits in length or other memorized secret meeting the
requirements of Section 5.1.1.2 and SHALL be rate limited as specified in Section 5.2.2. A
biometric activation factor SHALL meet the requirements of Section 5.2.3, including limits on
the number of consecutive authentication failures.
The unencrypted key and activation secret or biometric sample — and any biometric data
derived from the biometric sample such as a probe produced through signal processing —
SHALL be zeroized immediately after an authentication transaction has taken place.
5.1.9.2 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Device Verifiers

The requirements for a multi-factor cryptographic device verifier are identical to those for a
single-factor cryptographic device verifier, described in Section 5.1.7.2. Verification of the
authenticator output from a multi-factor cryptographic device proves use of the activation factor.
General Authenticator Requirements

The following subsections describe general requirements for authenticators.
5.2.1

Physical Authenticators

CSPs SHALL provide subscriber instructions on how to appropriately protect the authenticator
against theft or loss. The CSP SHALL provide a mechanism to revoke or suspend the
authenticator immediately upon notification from subscriber that loss or theft of the authenticator
is suspected.
5.2.2

Rate Limiting (Throttling)

When required by the authenticator type descriptions in Section 5.1, the verifier SHALL
implement controls to protect against online guessing attacks. Unless otherwise specified in the
description of a given authenticator, the verifier SHALL limit consecutive failed authentication
attempts on a single account to no more than 100.

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Additional techniques MAY be used to reduce the likelihood that an attacker will lock the
legitimate claimant out as a result of rate limiting. These include:
•
•
•
•
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Requiring the claimant to complete a CAPTCHA before attempting authentication.
Requiring the claimant to wait following a failed attempt for a period of time that
increases as the account approaches its maximum allowance for consecutive failed
attempts (e.g., 30 seconds up to an hour).
Accepting only authentication requests that come from a white list of IP addresses from
which the subscriber has been successfully authenticated before.
Leveraging other risk-based or adaptive authentication techniques to identify user
behavior that falls within, or out of, typical norms. These might, for example, include use
of IP address, geolocation, timing of request patterns, or browser metadata.

When the subscriber successfully authenticates, the verifier SHOULD disregard any previous
failed attempts for that user from the same IP address.
5.2.3

Use of Biometrics

The use of biometrics (something you are) in authentication includes both measurement of
physical characteristics (e.g., fingerprint, iris, facial characteristics) and behavioral
characteristics (e.g., typing cadence). Both classes are considered biometric modalities, although
different modalities may differ in the extent to which they establish authentication intent as
described in Section 5.2.9.
For a variety of reasons, this document supports only limited use of biometrics for
authentication. These reasons include:
•
•
•

•

The biometric False Match Rate (FMR) does not provide confidence in the authentication
of the subscriber by itself. In addition, FMR does not account for spoofing attacks.
Biometric comparison is probabilistic, whereas the other authentication factors are
deterministic.
Biometric template protection schemes provide a method for revoking biometric
credentials that is comparable to other authentication factors (e.g., PKI certificates and
passwords). However, the availability of such solutions is limited, and standards for
testing these methods are under development.
Biometric characteristics do not constitute secrets. They can be obtained online or by
taking a picture of someone with a camera phone (e.g., facial images) with or without
their knowledge, lifted from objects someone touches (e.g., latent fingerprints), or
captured with high resolution images (e.g., iris patterns). While presentation attack
detection (PAD) technologies (e.g., liveness detection) can mitigate the risk of these
types of attacks, additional trust in the sensor or biometric processing is required to
ensure that PAD is operating in accordance with the needs of the CSP and the subscriber.

Therefore, the limited use of biometrics for authentication is supported with the following
requirements and guidelines:

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Biometrics SHALL be used only as part of multi-factor authentication with a physical
authenticator (something you have).
An authenticated protected channel between sensor (or an endpoint containing a sensor that
resists sensor replacement) and verifier SHALL be established and the sensor or endpoint
SHALL be authenticated prior to capturing the biometric sample from the claimant.
The biometric system SHALL operate with an FMR [ISO/IEC 2382-37] of 1 in 1000 or better.
This FMR SHALL be achieved under conditions of a conformant attack (i.e., zero-effort
impostor attempt) as defined in ISO/IEC 30107-1.
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The biometric system SHOULD implement PAD. Testing of the biometric system to be
deployed SHOULD demonstrate at least 90% resistance to presentation attacks for each relevant
attack type (i.e., species), where resistance is defined as the number of thwarted presentation
attacks divided by the number of trial presentation attacks. Testing of presentation attack
resistance SHALL be in accordance with Clause 12 of ISO/IEC 30107-3. The PAD decision
MAY be made either locally on the claimant’s device or by a central verifier.
Note: PAD is being considered as a mandatory requirement in future editions of this
guideline.
The biometric system SHALL allow no more than 5 consecutive failed authentication attempts
or 10 consecutive failed attempts if PAD meeting the above requirements is implemented. Once
that limit has been reached, the biometric authenticator SHALL either:
•
•

Impose a delay of at least 30 seconds before the next attempt, increasing exponentially
with each successive attempt (e.g., 1 minute before the following failed attempt, 2
minutes before the second following attempt), or
Disable the biometric user authentication and offer another factor (e.g., a different
biometric modality or a PIN/Passcode if it is not already a required factor) if such an
alternative method is already available.

The verifier SHALL make a determination of sensor and endpoint performance, integrity, and
authenticity. Acceptable methods for making this determination include, but are not limited to:
•
•
•

Authentication of the sensor or endpoint.
Certification by an approved accreditation authority.
Runtime interrogation of signed metadata (e.g., attestation) as described in Section 5.2.4.

Biometric comparison can be performed locally on claimant’s device or at a central verifier.
Since the potential for attacks on a larger scale is greater at central verifiers, local comparison is
preferred.
If comparison is performed centrally:
•

Use of the biometric as an authentication factor SHALL be limited to one or more
specific devices that are identified using approved cryptography. Since the biometric has
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not yet unlocked the main authentication key, a separate key SHALL be used for
identifying the device.
Biometric revocation, referred to as biometric template protection in ISO/IEC 24745,
SHALL be implemented.
All transmission of biometrics SHALL be over the authenticated protected channel.

Biometric samples collected in the authentication process MAY be used to train comparison
algorithms or — with user consent — for other research purposes. Biometric samples and any
biometric data derived from the biometric sample such as a probe produced through signal
processing SHALL be zeroized immediately after any training or research data has been derived.
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Biometrics are also used in some cases to prevent repudiation of enrollment and to verify that the
same individual participates in all phases of the enrollment process as described in SP 800-63A.
5.2.4

Attestation

An attestation is information conveyed to the verifier regarding a directly-connected
authenticator or the endpoint involved in an authentication operation. Information conveyed by
attestation MAY include, but is not limited to:
•
•
•
•

The provenance (e.g., manufacturer or supplier certification), health, and integrity of the
authenticator and endpoint.
Security features of the authenticator.
Security and performance characteristics of biometric sensor(s).
Sensor modality.

If this attestation is signed, it SHALL be signed using a digital signature that provides at least the
minimum security strength specified in the latest revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the
date of this publication).
Attestation information MAY be used as part of a verifier’s risk-based authentication decision.
5.2.5

Verifier Impersonation Resistance

Verifier impersonation attacks, sometimes referred to as “phishing attacks,” are attempts by
fraudulent verifiers and RPs to fool an unwary claimant into authenticating to an impostor
website. In prior versions of SP 800-63, protocols resistant to verifier-impersonation attacks were
also referred to as “strongly MitM resistant.”
A verifier impersonation-resistant authentication protocol SHALL establish an authenticated
protected channel with the verifier. It SHALL then strongly and irreversibly bind a channel
identifier that was negotiated in establishing the authenticated protected channel to the
authenticator output (e.g., by signing the two values together using a private key controlled by
the claimant for which the public key is known to the verifier). The verifier SHALL validate the
signature or other information used to prove verifier impersonation resistance. This prevents an
impostor verifier, even one that has obtained a certificate representing the actual verifier, from
replaying that authentication on a different authenticated protected channel.
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Approved cryptographic algorithms SHALL be used to establish verifier impersonation
resistance where it is required. Keys used for this purpose SHALL provide at least the minimum
security strength specified in the latest revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the date of this
publication).
One example of a verifier impersonation-resistant authentication protocol is client-authenticated
TLS, because the client signs the authenticator output along with earlier messages from the
protocol that are unique to the particular TLS connection being negotiated.

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Authenticators that involve the manual entry of an authenticator output, such as out-of-band and
OTP authenticators, SHALL NOT be considered verifier impersonation-resistant because the
manual entry does not bind the authenticator output to the specific session being authenticated.
In a MitM attack, an impostor verifier could replay the OTP authenticator output to the verifier
and successfully authenticate.
5.2.6

Verifier-CSP Communications

In situations where the verifier and CSP are separate entities (as shown by the dotted line in SP
800-63-3 Figure 4-1), communications between the verifier and CSP SHALL occur through a
mutually-authenticated secure channel (such as a client-authenticated TLS connection) using
approved cryptography.
5.2.7

Verifier-Compromise Resistance

Use of some types of authenticators requires that the verifier store a copy of the authenticator
secret. For example, an OTP authenticator (described in Section 5.1.4) requires that the verifier
independently generate the authenticator output for comparison against the value sent by the
claimant. Because of the potential for the verifier to be compromised and stored secrets stolen,
authentication protocols that do not require the verifier to persistently store secrets that could be
used for authentication are considered stronger, and are described herein as being verifier
compromise resistant. Note that such verifiers are not resistant to all attacks. A verifier could be
compromised in a different way, such as being manipulated into always accepting a particular
authenticator output.
Verifier compromise resistance can be achieved in different ways, for example:
•
•

Use a cryptographic authenticator that requires the verifier store a public key
corresponding to a private key held by the authenticator.
Store the expected authenticator output in hashed form. This method can be used with
some look-up secret authenticators (described in Section 5.1.2), for example.

To be considered verifier compromise resistant, public keys stored by the verifier SHALL be
associated with the use of approved cryptographic algorithms and SHALL provide at least the
minimum security strength specified in the latest revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the
date of this publication).
Other verifier compromise resistant secrets SHALL use approved hash algorithms and the
underlying secrets SHALL have at least the minimum security strength specified in the latest
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NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

revision of SP 800-131A (112 bits as of the date of this publication). Secrets (e.g., memorized
secrets) having lower complexity SHALL NOT be considered verifier compromise resistant
when hashed because of the potential to defeat the hashing process through dictionary lookup or
exhaustive search.
5.2.8

Replay Resistance

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An authentication process resists replay attacks if it is impractical to achieve a successful
authentication by recording and replaying a previous authentication message. Replay resistance
is in addition to the replay-resistant nature of authenticated protected channel protocols, since the
output could be stolen prior to entry into the protected channel. Protocols that use nonces or
challenges to prove the “freshness” of the transaction are resistant to replay attacks since the
verifier will easily detect when old protocol messages are replayed since they will not contain the
appropriate nonces or timeliness data.
Examples of replay-resistant authenticators are OTP devices, cryptographic authenticators, and
look-up secrets.
In contrast, memorized secrets are not considered replay resistant because the authenticator
output — the secret itself — is provided for each authentication.
5.2.9

Authentication Intent

An authentication process demonstrates intent if it requires the subject to explicitly respond to
each authentication or reauthentication request. The goal of authentication intent is to make it
more difficult for directly-connected physical authenticators (e.g., multi-factor cryptographic
devices) to be used without the subject’s knowledge, such as by malware on the endpoint.
Authentication intent SHALL be established by the authenticator itself, although multi-factor
cryptographic devices MAY establish intent by reentry of the other authentication factor on the
endpoint with which the authenticator is used.
Authentication intent MAY be established in a number of ways. Authentication processes that
require the subject’s intervention (e.g., a claimant entering an authenticator output from an OTP
device) establish intent. Cryptographic devices that require user action (e.g., pushing a button or
reinsertion) for each authentication or reauthentication operation are also establish intent.
Depending on the modality, presentation of a biometric may or may not establish authentication
intent. Presentation of a fingerprint would normally establish intent, while observation of the
claimant’s face using a camera normally would not by itself. Behavioral biometrics similarly are
less likely to establish authentication intent because they do not always require a specific action
on the claimant’s part.
5.2.10 Restricted Authenticators

As threats evolve, authenticators’ capability to resist attacks typically degrades. Conversely,
some authenticators’ performance may improve — for example, when changes to their
underlying standards increases their ability to resist particular attacks.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

To account for these changes in authenticator performance, NIST places additional restrictions
on authenticator types or specific classes or instantiations of an authenticator type.
The use of a RESTRICTED authenticator requires that the implementing organization assess,
understand, and accept the risks associated with that RESTRICTED authenticator and
acknowledge that risk will likely increase over time. It is the responsibility of the organization to
determine the level of acceptable risk for their system(s) and associated data and to define any
methods for mitigating excessive risks. If at any time the organization determines that the risk to
any party is unacceptable, then that authenticator SHALL NOT be used.

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Furthermore, the risk of an authentication error is typically borne by multiple parties, including
the implementing organization, organizations that rely on the authentication decision, and the
subscriber. Because the subscriber may be exposed to additional risk when an organization
accepts a RESTRICTED authenticator and that the subscriber may have a limited understanding
of and ability to control that risk, the CSP SHALL:
1. Offer subscribers at least one alternate authenticator that is not RESTRICTED and
can be used to authenticate at the required AAL.
2. Provide meaningful notice to subscribers regarding the security risks of the
RESTRICTED authenticator and availability of alternative(s) that are not
RESTRICTED.
3. Address any additional risk to subscribers in its risk assessment.
4. Develop a migration plan for the possibility that the RESTRICTED authenticator is
no longer acceptable at some point in the future and include this migration plan in
its digital identity acceptance statement.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Authenticator Lifecycle Management

This section is normative.
A number of events can occur over the lifecycle of a subscriber’s authenticator that affect that
authenticator’s use. These events include binding, loss, theft, unauthorized duplication,
expiration, and revocation. This section describes the actions to be taken in response to those
events.
Authenticator Binding
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Authenticator binding refers to the establishment of an association between a specific
authenticator and a subscriber’s account, enabling the authenticator to be used — possibly in
conjunction with other authenticators — to authenticate for that account.
Authenticators SHALL be bound to subscriber accounts by either:
•
•

Issuance by the CSP as part of enrollment; or
Associating a subscriber-provided authenticator that is acceptable to the CSP.

These guidelines refer to the binding rather than the issuance of an authenticator as to
accommodate both options.
Throughout the digital identity lifecycle, CSPs SHALL maintain a record of all authenticators
that are or have been associated with each identity. The CSP or verifier SHALL maintain the
information required for throttling authentication attempts when required, as described in Section
5.2.2. The CSP SHALL also verify the type of user-provided authenticator (e.g., single-factor
cryptographic device vs. multi-factor cryptographic device) so verifiers can determine
compliance with requirements at each AAL.
The record created by the CSP SHALL contain the date and time the authenticator was bound to
the account. The record SHOULD include information about the source of the binding (e.g., IP
address, device identifier) of any device associated with the enrollment. If available, the record
SHOULD also contain information about the source of unsuccessful authentications attempted
with the authenticator.
When any new authenticator is bound to a subscriber account, the CSP SHALL ensure that the
binding protocol and the protocol for provisioning the associated key(s) are done at a level of
security commensurate with the AAL at which the authenticator will be used. For example,
protocols for key provisioning SHALL use authenticated protected channels or be performed in
person to protect against man-in-the-middle attacks. Binding of multi-factor authenticators
SHALL require multi-factor authentication or equivalent (e.g., association with the session in
which identity proofing has been just completed) be used in order to bind the authenticator. The
same conditions apply when a key pair is generated by the authenticator and the public key is
sent to the CSP.

NIST SP 800-63B

6.1.1

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Binding at Enrollment

The following requirements apply when an authenticator is bound to an identity as a result of a
successful identity proofing transaction, as described in SP 800-63A. Since Executive Order
13681 [EO 13681] requires the use of multi-factor authentication for the release of any personal
data, it is important that authenticators be bound to subscriber accounts at enrollment, enabling
access to personal data, including that established by identity proofing.

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The CSP SHALL bind at least one, and SHOULD bind at least two, physical (something you
have) authenticators to the subscriber’s online identity, in addition to a memorized secret or one
or more biometrics. Binding of multiple authenticators is preferred in order to recover from the
loss or theft of the subscriber’s primary authenticator.
While all identifying information is self-asserted at IAL1, preservation of online material or an
online reputation makes it undesirable to lose control of an account due to the loss of an
authenticator. The second authenticator makes it possible to securely recover from an
authenticator loss. For this reason, a CSP SHOULD bind at least two physical authenticators to
the subscriber’s credential at IAL1 as well.
At IAL2 and above, identifying information is associated with the digital identity and the
subscriber has undergone an identity proofing process as described in SP 800-63A. As a result,
authenticators at the same AAL as the desired IAL SHALL be bound to the account. For
example, if the subscriber has successfully completed proofing at IAL2, then AAL2 or AAL3
authenticators are appropriate to bind to the IAL2 identity. While a CSP MAY bind an AAL1
authenticator to an IAL2 identity, if the subscriber is authenticated at AAL1, the CSP SHALL
NOT expose personal information, even if self-asserted, to the subscriber. As stated in the
previous paragraph, the availability of additional authenticators provides backup methods for
authentication if an authenticator is damaged, lost, or stolen.
If enrollment and binding cannot be completed in a single physical encounter or electronic
transaction (i.e., within a single protected session), the following methods SHALL be used to
ensure that the same party acts as the applicant throughout the processes:
For remote transactions:
1. The applicant SHALL identify themselves in each new binding transaction by
presenting a temporary secret which was either established during a prior transaction,
or sent to the applicant’s phone number, email address, or postal address of record.
2. Long-term authenticator secrets SHALL only be issued to the applicant within a
protected session.
For in-person transactions:
1. The applicant SHALL identify themselves in person by either using a secret as
described in remote transaction (1) above, or through use of a biometric that was
recorded during a prior encounter.
2. Temporary secrets SHALL NOT be reused.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

3. If the CSP issues long-term authenticator secrets during a physical transaction, then
they SHALL be loaded locally onto a physical device that is issued in person to the
applicant or delivered in a manner that confirms the address of record.
6.1.2

Post-Enrollment Binding

The following subsections describe the binding of an authenticator to a subscriber’s account.
6.1.2.1 Binding of an Additional Authenticator at Existing AAL

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With the exception of memorized secrets, CSPs and verifiers SHOULD encourage subscribers to
maintain at least two valid authenticators of each factor that they will be using. For example, a
subscriber who usually uses an OTP device as a physical authenticator MAY also be issued a
number of look-up secret authenticators, or register a device for out-of-band authentication, in
case the physical authenticator is lost, stolen, or damaged. See Section 6.1.2.3 for more
information on replacement of memorized secret authenticators.
Accordingly, CSPs SHOULD permit the binding of additional authenticators to a subscriber’s
account. Before adding the new authenticator, the CSP SHALL first require the subscriber to
authenticate at the AAL (or a higher AAL) at which the new authenticator will be used. When an
authenticator is added, the CSP SHOULD send a notification to the subscriber via a mechanism
that is independent of the transaction binding the new authenticator (e.g., email to an address
previously associated with the subscriber). The CSP MAY limit the number of authenticators
that may be bound in this manner.
6.1.2.2 Adding an Additional Factor to a Single-Factor Account

If the subscriber’s account has only one authentication factor bound to it (i.e., at IAL1/AAL1)
and an additional authenticator of a different authentication factor is to be added, the subscriber
MAY request that the account be upgraded to AAL2. The IAL would remain at IAL1.
Before binding the new authenticator, the CSP SHALL require the subscriber to authenticate at
AAL1. The CSP SHOULD send a notification of the event to the subscriber via a mechanism
independent of the transaction binding the new authenticator (e.g., email to an address previously
associated with the subscriber).
6.1.2.3 Replacement of a Lost Authentication Factor

If a subscriber loses all authenticators of a factor necessary to complete multi-factor
authentication and has been identity proofed at IAL2 or IAL3, that subscriber SHALL repeat the
identity proofing process described in SP 800-63A. An abbreviated proofing process, confirming
the binding of the claimant to previously-supplied evidence, MAY be used if the CSP has
retained the evidence from the original proofing process pursuant to a privacy risk assessment as
described in SP 800-63A Section 4.2. The CSP SHALL require the claimant to authenticate
using an authenticator of the remaining factor, if any, to confirm binding to the existing identity.
Reestablishment of authentication factors at IAL3 SHALL be done in person, or through a
supervised remote process as described in SP 800-63A Section 5.3.3.2, and SHALL verify the
biometric collected during the original proofing process.
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DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
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The CSP SHOULD send a notification of the event to the subscriber. This MAY be the same
notice as is required as part of the proofing process.
Replacement of a lost (i.e., forgotten) memorized secret is problematic because it is very
common. Additional “backup” memorized secrets do not mitigate this because they are just as
likely to also have been forgotten. If a biometric is bound to the account, the biometric and
associated physical authenticator SHOULD be used to establish a new memorized secret.

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As an alternative to the above re-proofing process when there is no biometric bound to the
account, the CSP MAY bind a new memorized secret with authentication using two physical
authenticators, along with a confirmation code that has been sent to one of the subscriber’s
addresses of record. The confirmation code SHALL consist of at least 6 random alphanumeric
characters generated by an approved random bit generator [SP 800-90Ar1]. Those sent to a
postal address of record SHALL be valid for a maximum of 7 days but MAY be made valid up
to 21 days via an exception process to accommodate addresses outside the direct reach of the
U.S. Postal Service. Confirmation codes sent by means other than physical mail SHALL be valid
for a maximum of 10 minutes.
6.1.3

Binding to a Subscriber-provided Authenticator

A subscriber may already possess authenticators suitable for authentication at a particular AAL.
For example, they may have a two-factor authenticator from a social network provider,
considered AAL2 and IAL1, and would like to use those credentials at an RP that requires IAL2.
CSPs SHOULD, where practical, accommodate the use of subscriber-provided authenticators in
order to relieve the burden to the subscriber of managing a large number of authenticators.
Binding of these authenticators SHALL be done as described in Section 6.1.2.1. In situations
where the authenticator strength is not self-evident (e.g., between single-factor and multi-factor
authenticators of a given type), the CSP SHOULD assume the use of the weaker authenticator
unless it is able to establish that the stronger authenticator is in fact being used (e.g., by
verification with the issuer or manufacturer of the authenticator).
6.1.4

Renewal

The CSP SHOULD bind an updated authenticator an appropriate amount of time before an
existing authenticator’s expiration. The process for this SHOULD conform closely to the initial
authenticator binding process (e.g., confirming address of record). Following successful use of
the new authenticator, the CSP MAY revoke the authenticator that it is replacing.
Loss, Theft, Damage, and Unauthorized Duplication

Compromised authenticators include those that have been lost, stolen, or subject to unauthorized
duplication. Generally, one must assume that a lost authenticator has been stolen or
compromised by someone that is not the legitimate subscriber of the authenticator. Damaged or
malfunctioning authenticators are also considered compromised to guard against any possibility
of extraction of the authenticator secret. One notable exception is a memorized secret that has
been forgotten without other indications of having been compromised, such as having been
obtained by an attacker.
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DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
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Suspension, revocation, or destruction of compromised authenticators SHOULD occur as
promptly as practical following detection. Agencies SHOULD establish time limits for this
process.

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To facilitate secure reporting of the loss, theft, or damage to an authenticator, the CSP SHOULD
provide the subscriber with a method of authenticating to the CSP using a backup or alternate
authenticator. This backup authenticator SHALL be either a memorized secret or a physical
authenticator. Either MAY be used, but only one authentication factor is required to make this
report. Alternatively, the subscriber MAY establish an authenticated protected channel to the
CSP and verify information collected during the proofing process. The CSP MAY choose to
verify an address of record (i.e., email, telephone, postal) and suspend authenticator(s) reported
to have been compromised. The suspension SHALL be reversible if the subscriber successfully
authenticates to the CSP using a valid (i.e., not suspended) authenticator and requests
reactivation of an authenticator suspended in this manner. The CSP MAY set a time limit after
which a suspended authenticator can no longer be reactivated.
Expiration

CSPs MAY issue authenticators that expire. If and when an authenticator expires, it SHALL
NOT be usable for authentication. When an authentication is attempted using an expired
authenticator, the CSP SHOULD give an indication to the subscriber that the authentication
failure is due to expiration rather than some other cause.
The CSP SHALL require subscribers to surrender or prove destruction of any physical
authenticator containing attribute certificates signed by the CSP as soon as practical after
expiration or receipt of a renewed authenticator.
Revocation and Termination

Revocation of an authenticator — sometimes referred to as termination, especially in the context
of PIV authenticators — refers to removal of the binding between an authenticator and a
credential the CSP maintains.
CSPs SHALL revoke the binding of authenticators promptly when an online identity ceases to
exist (e.g., subscriber’s death, discovery of a fraudulent subscriber), when requested by the
subscriber, or when the CSP determines that the subscriber no longer meets its eligibility
requirements.
The CSP SHALL require subscribers to surrender or certify destruction of any physical
authenticator containing certified attributes signed by the CSP as soon as practical after
revocation or termination takes place. This is necessary to block the use of the authenticator’s
certified attributes in offline situations between revocation/termination and expiration of the
certification.
Further requirements on the termination of PIV authenticators are found in FIPS 201.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Session Management

This section is normative.
Once an authentication event has taken place, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to
continue using the application across multiple subsequent interactions without requiring them to
repeat the authentication event. This requirement is particularly true for federation scenarios —
described in SP 800-63C — where the authentication event necessarily involves several
components and parties coordinating across a network.

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To facilitate this behavior, a session MAY be started in response to an authentication event, and
continue the session until such time that it is terminated. The session MAY be terminated for any
number of reasons, including but not limited to an inactivity timeout, an explicit logout event, or
other means. The session MAY be continued through a reauthentication event — described
in Section 7.2 — wherein the user repeats some or all of the initial authentication event, thereby
re-establishing the session.
Session management is preferable over continual presentation of credentials as the poor usability
of continual presentation often creates incentives for workarounds such as cached unlocking
credentials, negating the freshness of the authentication event.
Session Bindings

A session occurs between the software that a subscriber is running — such as a browser,
application, or operating system (i.e., the session subject) — and the RP or CSP that the
subscriber is accessing (i.e., the session host). A session secret SHALL be shared between the
subscriber’s software and the service being accessed. This secret binds the two ends of the
session, allowing the subscriber to continue using the service over time. The secret SHALL be
presented directly by the subscriber’s software or possession of the secret SHALL be proven
using a cryptographic mechanism.
The secret used for session binding SHALL be generated by the session host in direct response to
an authentication event. A session SHOULD inherit the AAL properties of the authentication
event which triggered its creation. A session MAY be considered at a lower AAL than the
authentication event but SHALL NOT be considered at a higher AAL than the authentication
event.
Secrets used for session binding:
1. SHALL be generated by the session host during an interaction, typically immediately
following authentication.
2. SHALL be generated by an approved random bit generator [SP 800-90Ar1] and
contain at least 64 bits of entropy.
3. SHALL be erased or invalidated by the session subject when the subscriber logs out.
4. SHOULD be erased on the subscriber endpoint when the user logs out or when the
secret is deemed to have expired.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

5. SHOULD NOT be placed in insecure locations such as HTML5 Local Storage due to
the potential exposure of local storage to cross-site scripting (XSS) attacks.
6. SHALL be sent to and received from the device using an authenticated protected
channel.
7. SHALL time out and not be accepted after the times specified in Sections 4.1.4, 4.2.4,
and 4.3.4, as appropriate for the AAL.
8. SHALL NOT be available to insecure communications between the host and
subscriber’s endpoint. Authenticated sessions SHALL NOT fall back to an insecure
transport, such as from https to http, following authentication.

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URLs or POST content SHALL contain a session identifier that SHALL be verified by the RP to
ensure that actions taken outside the session do not affect the protected session.
There are several mechanisms for managing a session over time. The following sections give
different examples along with additional requirements and considerations particular to each
example technology. Additional informative guidance is available in the OWASP Session
Management Cheat Sheet [OWASP-session].
7.1.1

Browser Cookies

Browser cookies are the predominant mechanism by which a session will be created and tracked
for a subscriber accessing a service.
Cookies:
1.
2.
3.
4.

7.1.2

SHALL be tagged to be accessible only on secure (HTTPS) sessions.
SHALL be accessible to the minimum practical set of hostnames and paths.
SHOULD be tagged to be inaccessible via JavaScript (HttpOnly).
SHOULD be tagged to expire at, or soon after, the session’s validity period. This
requirement is intended to limit the accumulation of cookies, but SHALL NOT be
depended upon to enforce session timeouts.

Access Tokens

An access token — such as found in OAuth — is used to allow an application to access a set of
services on a subscriber’s behalf following an authentication event. The presence of an OAuth
access token SHALL NOT be interpreted by the RP as presence of the subscriber, in the absence
of other signals. The OAuth access token, and any associated refresh tokens, MAY be valid long
after the authentication session has ended and the subscriber has left the application.
7.1.3

Device Identification

Other methods of secure device identification — including but not limited to mutual TLS, token
binding, or other mechanisms — MAY be used to enact a session between a subscriber and a
service.

NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Reauthentication

Continuity of authenticated sessions SHALL be based upon the possession of a session secret
issued by the verifier at the time of authentication and optionally refreshed during the session.
The nature of a session depends on the application, including:
1. A web browser session with a “session” cookie, or
2. An instance of a mobile application that retains a session secret.
Session secrets SHALL be non-persistent. That is, they SHALL NOT be retained across a restart
of the associated application or a reboot of the host device.
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Periodic reauthentication of sessions SHALL be performed to confirm the continued presence of
the subscriber at an authenticated session (i.e., that the subscriber has not walked away without
logging out).
A session SHALL NOT be extended past the guidelines in Sections 4.1.3, 4.2.3, and 4.3.3
(depending on AAL) based on presentation of the session secret alone. Prior to session
expiration, the reauthentication time limit SHALL be extended by prompting the subscriber for
the authentication factor(s) specified in Table 7-1.
When a session has been terminated, due to a time-out or other action, the user SHALL be
required to establish a new session by authenticating again.
Table 7-1 - AAL Reauthentication Requirements

AAL

Requirement

Presentation of any one factor

Presentation of a memorized secret or biometric

Presentation of all factors

Note: At AAL2, a memorized secret or biometric, and not a physical authenticator, is
required because the session secret is something you have, and an additional
authentication factor is required to continue the session.
7.2.1

Reauthentication from a Federation or Assertion

When using a federation protocol as described in SP 800-63C, Section 5 to connect the CSP and
RP, special considerations apply to session management and reauthentication. The federation
protocol communicates an authentication event between the CSP and the RP but establishes no
session between them. Since the CSP and RP often employ separate session management
technologies, there SHALL NOT be any assumption of correlation between these sessions.
Consequently, when an RP session expires and the RP requires reauthentication, it is entirely
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possible that the session at the CSP has not expired and that a new assertion could be generated
from this session at the CSP without reauthenticating the user.
An RP requiring reauthentication through a federation protocol SHALL — if possible within the
protocol — specify the maximum acceptable authentication age to the CSP, and the CSP SHALL
reauthenticate the subscriber if they have not been authenticated within that time period. The
CSP SHALL communicate the authentication event time to the RP to allow the RP to decide if
the assertion is sufficient for reauthentication and to determine the time for the next
reauthentication event.

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NIST SP 800-63B

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Threats and Security Considerations

This section is informative.
Authenticator Threats

An attacker who can gain control of an authenticator will often be able to masquerade as the
authenticator’s owner. Threats to authenticators can be categorized based on attacks on the types
of authentication factors that comprise the authenticator:
•
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•

Something you know may be disclosed to an attacker. The attacker might guess a
memorized secret. Where the authenticator is a shared secret, the attacker could gain
access to the CSP or verifier and obtain the secret value or perform a dictionary attack on
a hash of that value. An attacker may observe the entry of a PIN or passcode, find a
written record or journal entry of a PIN or passcode, or may install malicious software
(e.g., a keyboard logger) to capture the secret. Additionally, an attacker may determine
the secret through offline attacks on a password database maintained by the verifier.
Something you have may be lost, damaged, stolen from the owner, or cloned by an
attacker. For example, an attacker who gains access to the owner’s computer might copy
a software authenticator. A hardware authenticator might be stolen, tampered with, or
duplicated. Out-of-band secrets may be intercepted by an attacker and used to
authenticate their own session.
Something you are may be replicated. For example, an attacker may obtain a copy of the
subscriber’s fingerprint and construct a replica.

This document assumes that the subscriber is not colluding with an attacker who is attempting to
falsely authenticate to the verifier. With this assumption in mind, the threats to the
authenticator(s) used for digital authentication are listed in Table 8-1, along with some examples.
Table 8-1 Authenticator Threats

Authenticator
Threat/Attack

Description

Example

The attacker generates a false
assertion

Compromised CSP asserts
identity of a claimant who has not
properly authenticated

The attacker modifies an
existing assertion

Compromised proxy that changes
AAL of an authentication
assertion

A physical authenticator is
stolen by an Attacker.

A hardware cryptographic device
is stolen.

Assertion
Manufacture or
Modification

Theft

NIST SP 800-63B

Authenticator
Threat/Attack

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT
Description

Example

An OTP device is stolen.
A look-up secret authenticator is
stolen.
A cell phone is stolen.
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Passwords written on paper are
disclosed.
Passwords stored in an electronic
file are copied.

Duplication

The subscriber’s authenticator
has been copied with or
without their knowledge.

Software PKI authenticator
(private key) copied.
Look-up secret authenticator
copied.
Counterfeit biometric
authenticator manufactured.
Memorized secrets are obtained
by watching keyboard entry.

Eavesdropping

The authenticator secret or
authenticator output is
revealed to the attacker as the
subscriber is authenticating.

Memorized secrets or
authenticator outputs are
intercepted by keystroke logging
software.
A PIN is captured from a PIN pad
device.
A hashed password is obtained
and used by an attacker for

NIST SP 800-63B

Authenticator
Threat/Attack

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT
Description

Example

another authentication (pass-thehash attack).

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Offline Cracking

An out-of-band secret is
intercepted by the attacker by
compromising the
communication channel.

An out-of-band secret is
transmitted via unencrypted WiFi and received by the attacker.

The authenticator is exposed
using analytical methods
outside the authentication
mechanism.

A software PKI authenticator is
subjected to dictionary attack to
identify the correct password to
use to decrypt the private key.
A key is extracted by differential
power analysis on a hardware
cryptographic authenticator.

Side Channel
Attack

The authenticator secret is
exposed using physical
characteristics of the
authenticator.

A cryptographic authenticator
secret is extracted by analysis of
the response time of the
authenticator over a number of
attempts.
A password is revealed by
subscriber to a website
impersonating the verifier.

Phishing or
Pharming

The authenticator output is
captured by fooling the
subscriber into thinking the
attacker is a verifier or RP.

A memorized secret is revealed
by a bank subscriber in response
to an email inquiry from a
phisher pretending to represent
the bank.
A memorized secret is revealed
by the subscriber at a bogus
verifier website reached through
DNS spoofing.

NIST SP 800-63B

Authenticator
Threat/Attack

DIGITAL IDENTITY GUIDELINES:
AUTHENTICATION & LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT
Description

Example

A memorized secret is revealed
by the subscriber to an officemate
asking for the password on behalf
of the subscriber’s boss.

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Social
Engineering

The attacker establishes a level
of trust with a subscriber in
order to convince the
subscriber to reveal their
authenticator secret or
authenticator output.

A memorized secret is revealed
by a subscriber in a telephone
inquiry from an attacker
masquerading as a system
administrator.
An out of band secret sent via
SMS is received by an attacker
who has convinced the mobile
operator to redirect the victim’s
mobile phone to the attacker.

Online Guessing

The attacker connects to the
verifier online and attempts to
guess a valid authenticator
output in the context of that
verifier.

Online dictionary attacks are used
to guess memorized secrets.
Online guessing is used to guess
authenticator outputs for an OTP
device registered to a legitimate
claimant.

Malicious code on the
endpoint proxies remote access A cryptographic authenticator
to a connected authenticator
connected to the endpoint is used
without the subscriber’s
to authenticate remote attackers.
consent.
Endpoint
Compromise
Malicious code on the
endpoint causes authentication
to other than the intended
verifier.

Authentication is performed on
behalf of an attacker rather than
the subscriber.
A malicious app on the endpoint
reads an out-of-band secret sent

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Authenticator
Threat/Attack

Description

Example

via SMS and the attacker uses the
secret to authenticate.

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Unauthorized
Binding

Malicious code on the
endpoint compromises a multifactor software cryptographic
authenticator.

Malicious code proxies
authentication or exports
authenticator keys from the
endpoint.

An attacker is able to cause an
authenticator under their
control to be bound to a
subscriber’s account.

An attacker intercepts an
authenticator or provisioning key
en route to the subscriber.

Threat Mitigation Strategies

Related mechanisms that assist in mitigating the threats identified above are summarized
in Table 8-2.
Table 8-2 Mitigating Authenticator Threats

Authenticator
Threat/Attack

Theft

Duplication

Threat Mitigation

Normative Reference(s)

Use multi-factor authenticators that need to be
activated through a memorized secret or
biometric.

4.2.1, 4.3.1

Use a combination of authenticators that includes
a memorized secret or biometric.

4.2.1, 4.3.1

Use authenticators from which it is difficult to
extract and duplicate long-term authentication
secrets.

4.2.2, 4.3.2, 5.1.7.1

Ensure the security of the endpoint, especially
with respect to freedom from malware such as
key loggers, prior to use.

4.2.2

Eavesdropping
Avoid use of non-trusted wireless networks as
5.1.3.1
unencrypted secondary out-of-band authentication
channels.
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Threat Mitigation

Normative Reference(s)

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Authenticate over authenticated protected
channels (e.g., observe lock icon in browser
window).

4.1.2, 4.2.2, 4.3.2

Use authentication protocols that are resistant to
replay attacks such as pass-the-hash.

5.2.8

Use authentication endpoints that employ trusted
input and trusted display capabilities.

5.1.6.1, 5.1.8.1

Use an authenticator with a high entropy
authenticator secret.

5.1.2.1, 5.1.4.1, 5.1.5.1,
5.1.7.1, 5.1.9.1

Store memorized secrets in a salted, hashed form,
including a keyed hash.

5.1.1.2, 5.2.7

Side Channel
Attack

Use authenticator algorithms that are designed to
maintain constant power consumption and timing
regardless of secret values.

4.3.2

Phishing or
Pharming

Use authenticators that provide verifier
impersonation resistance.

5.2.5

Social
Engineering

Avoid use of authenticators that present a risk of
social engineering of third parties such as
customer service agents.

6.1.2.1, 6.1.2.3

Use authenticators that generate high entropy
output.

5.1.2.1, 5.1.7.1, 5.1.9.1

Use an authenticator that locks up after a number
of repeated failed activation attempts.

5.2.2

Use hardware authenticators that require physical
action by the subscriber.

5.2.9

Maintain software-based keys in restricted-access
storage.

5.1.3.1, 5.1.6.1, 5.1.8.1

Use MitM-resistant protocols for provisioning of
authenticators and associated keys.

6.1

Offline
Cracking

Online
Guessing

Endpoint
Compromise

Unauthorized
Binding

Several other strategies may be applied to mitigate the threats described in Table 8-1:
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•
•
•
•
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Multiple factors make successful attacks more difficult to accomplish. If an attacker
needs to both steal a cryptographic authenticator and guess a memorized secret, then the
work to discover both factors may be too high.
Physical security mechanisms may be employed to protect a stolen authenticator from
duplication. Physical security mechanisms can provide tamper evidence, detection, and
response.
Requiring the use of long memorized secrets that don’t appear in common dictionaries
may force attackers to try every possible value.
System and network security controls may be employed to prevent an attacker from
gaining access to a system or installing malicious software.
Periodic training may be performed to ensure subscribers understand when and how to
report compromise — or suspicion of compromise — or otherwise recognize patterns of
behavior that may signify an attacker attempting to compromise the authentication
process.
Out of band techniques may be employed to verify proof of possession of registered
devices (e.g., cell phones).
Authenticator Recovery

The weak point in many authentication mechanisms is the process followed when a subscriber
loses control of one or more authenticators and needs to replace them. In many cases, the options
remaining available to authenticate the subscriber are limited, and economic concerns (e.g., cost
of maintaining call centers) motivate the use of inexpensive, and often less secure, backup
authentication methods. To the extent that authenticator recovery is human-assisted, there is also
the risk of social engineering attacks.
To maintain the integrity of the authentication factors, it is essential that it not be possible to
leverage an authentication involving one factor to obtain an authenticator of a different factor.
For example, a memorized secret must not be usable to obtain a new list of look-up secrets.
Session Attacks

The above discussion focuses on threats to the authentication event itself, but hijacking attacks
on the session following an authentication event can have similar security impacts. The session
management guidelines in Section 7 are essential to maintain session integrity against attacks,
such as XSS. In addition, it is important to sanitize all information to be displayed [OWASPXSS-prevention] to ensure that it does not contain executable content. These guidelines also
recommend that session secrets be made inaccessible to mobile code in order to provide extra
protection against exfiltration of session secrets.
Another post-authentication threat, cross-site request forgery (CSRF), takes advantage of users’
tendency to have multiple sessions active at the same time. It is important to embed and verify a
session identifier into web requests to prevent the ability for a valid URL or request to be
unintentionally or maliciously activated.

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Privacy Considerations

These privacy considerations supplement the guidance in Section 4. This section is informative.
Privacy Risk Assessment

Sections 4.1.5, 4.2.5, and 4.3.5 require the CSP to conduct a privacy risk assessment for records
retention. Such a privacy risk assessment would include:

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1. The likelihood that the records retention could create a problem for the subscriber,
such as invasiveness or unauthorized access to the information.
2. The impact if such a problem did occur.
CSPs should be able to reasonably justify any response they take to identified privacy risks,
including accepting the risk, mitigating the risk, and sharing the risk. The use of subscriber
consent is a form of sharing the risk, and therefore appropriate for use only when a subscriber
could reasonably be expected to have the capacity to assess and accept the shared risk.
Privacy Controls

Section 4.4 requires CSPs to employ appropriately-tailored privacy controls. SP 800-53 provides
a set of privacy controls for CSPs to consider when deploying authentication mechanisms. These
controls cover notices, redress, and other important considerations for successful and trustworthy
deployments.
Processing Limitation

Section 4.4 requires CSPs to use measures to maintain the objectives of predictability (enabling
reliable assumptions by individuals, owners, and operators about PII and its processing by an
information system) and manageability (providing the capability for granular administration of
PII, including alteration, deletion, and selective disclosure) commensurate with privacy risks that
can arise from the processing of attributes for purposes other than identity proofing,
authentication, authorization, or attribute assertion, related fraud mitigation, or to comply with
law or legal process [NISTIR8062].
CSPs may have various business purposes for processing attributes, including providing nonidentity services to subscribers. However, processing attributes for purposes other than the
identity service can create privacy risks when individuals are not expecting or comfortable with
the additional processing. CSPs can determine appropriate measures commensurate with the
privacy risk arising from the additional processing. For example, absent applicable law,
regulation or policy, it may not be necessary to get explicit consent when processing attributes to
provide non-identity services requested by subscribers, although notices may help subscribers
maintain reliable assumptions about the processing (predictability). Other processing of
attributes may carry different privacy risks that call for obtaining explicit consent or allowing
subscribers more control over the use or disclosure of specific attributes (manageability).
Subscriber consent needs to be meaningful; therefore, when CSPs do use consent measures, they
cannot make acceptance by the subscriber of additional uses a condition of providing the identity
service.
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Consult your SAOP if there are questions about whether the proposed processing falls outside
the scope of the permitted processing or the appropriate privacy risk mitigation measures.
Agency-Specific Privacy Compliance

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Section 4.4 covers specific compliance obligations for federal CSPs. It is critical to involve your
agency’s SAOP in the earliest stages of digital authentication system development in order to
assess and mitigate privacy risks and advise the agency on compliance requirements, such as
whether or not the collection of PII to issue or maintain authenticators triggers the Privacy Act of
1974 [Privacy Act] or the E-Government Act of 2002 [E-Gov] requirement to conduct a PIA. For
example, with respect to centralized maintenance of biometrics, it is likely that the Privacy Act
requirements will be triggered and require coverage by either a new or existing Privacy Act
system of records due to the collection and maintenance of PII and any other attributes necessary
for authentication. The SAOP can similarly assist the agency in determining whether a PIA is
required.
These considerations should not be read as a requirement to develop a Privacy Act SORN or PIA
for authentication alone. In many cases it will make the most sense to draft a PIA and SORN that
encompasses the entire digital authentication process or include the digital authentication process
as part of a larger programmatic PIA that discusses the service or benefit to which the agency is
establishing online.
Due to the many components of digital authentication, it is important for the SAOP to have an
awareness and understanding of each individual component. For example, other privacy artifacts
may be applicable to an agency offering or using federated CSP or RP services (e.g., Data Use
Agreements, Computer Matching Agreements). The SAOP can assist the agency in determining
what additional requirements apply. Moreover, a thorough understanding of the individual
components of digital authentication will enable the SAOP to thoroughly assess and mitigate
privacy risks either through compliance processes or by other means

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Usability Considerations

This section is informative.
ISO/IEC 9241-11 defines usability as the “extent to which a product can be used by specified
users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified
context of use.” This definition focuses on users, their goals, and the context of use as key
elements necessary for achieving effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction. A holistic approach
that accounts for these key elements is necessary to achieve usability.

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A user’s goal for accessing an information system is to perform an intended task. Authentication
is the function that enables this goal. However, from the user’s perspective, authentication stands
between them and their intended task. Effective design and implementation of authentication
makes it easy to do the right thing, hard to do the wrong thing, and easy to recover when the
wrong thing happens.
Organizations need to be cognizant of the overall implications of their stakeholders’ entire digital
authentication ecosystem. Users often employ one or more authenticator, each for a different RP.
They then struggle to remember passwords, to recall which authenticator goes with which RP,
and to carry multiple physical authentication devices. Evaluating the usability of authentication
is critical, as poor usability often results in coping mechanisms and unintended work-arounds
that can ultimately degrade the effectiveness of security controls.
Integrating usability into the development process can lead to authentication solutions that are
secure and usable while still addressing users’ authentication needs and organizations’ business
goals.
The impact of usability across digital systems needs to be considered as part of the risk
assessment when deciding on the appropriate AAL. Authenticators with a higher AAL
sometimes offer better usability and should be allowed for use for lower AAL applications.
Leveraging federation for authentication can alleviate many of the usability issues, though such
an approach has its own tradeoffs, as discussed in SP 800-63C.
This section provides general usability considerations and possible implementations, but does not
recommend specific solutions. The implementations mentioned are examples to encourage
innovative technological approaches to address specific usability needs. Furthermore, usability
considerations and their implementations are sensitive to many factors that prevent a one-sizefits-all solution. For example, a font size that works in the desktop computing environment may
force text to scroll off of a small OTP device screen. Performing a usability evaluation on the
selected authenticator is a critical component of implementation. It is important to conduct
evaluations with representative users, realistic goals and tasks, and appropriate contexts of use.
ASSUMPTIONS
In this section, the term “users” means “claimants” or “subscribers.”
Guidelines and considerations are described from the users’ perspective.
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Accessibility differs from usability and is out of scope for this document. Section 508 was
enacted to eliminate barriers in information technology and require federal agencies to make
their online public content accessible to people with disabilities. Refer to Section 508 law and
standards for accessibility guidance.
Usability Considerations Common to Authenticators

When selecting and implementing an authentication system, consider usability across the entire
lifecycle of the selected authenticators (e.g., typical use and intermittent events), while being
mindful of the combination of users, their goals, and context of use.
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A single authenticator type usually does not suffice for the entire user population. Therefore,
whenever possible — based on AAL requirements — CSPs should support alternative
authenticator types and allow users to choose based on their needs. Task immediacy, perceived
cost benefit tradeoffs, and unfamiliarity with certain authenticators often impact choice. Users
tend to choose options that incur the least burden or cost at that moment. For example, if a task
requires immediate access to an information system, a user may prefer to create a new account
and password rather than select an authenticator requiring more steps. Alternatively, users may
choose a federated identity option — approved at the appropriate AAL — if they already have an
account with an identity provider. Users may understand some authenticators better than others,
and have different levels of trust based on their understanding and experience.
Positive user authentication experiences are integral to the success of an organization achieving
desired business outcomes. Therefore, they should strive to consider authenticators from the
users’ perspective. The overarching authentication usability goal is to minimize user burden and
authentication friction (e.g., the number of times a user has to authenticate, the steps involved,
and the amount of information he or she has to track). Single sign-on exemplifies one such
minimization strategy.
Usability considerations applicable to most authenticators are described below. Subsequent
sections describe usability considerations specific to a particular authenticator.
Usability considerations for typical usage of all authenticators include:
•
•

•

Provide information on the use and maintenance of the authenticator (e.g., what to do if
the authenticator is lost or stolen, instructions for use), especially if there are different
requirements for first-time use or initialization.
Authenticator availability should also be considered as users will need to remember to
have their authenticator readily available. Consider the need for alternate authentication
options to protect against loss, damage, or other negative impacts to the original
authenticator.
Whenever possible, based on AAL requirements, users should be provided with alternate
authentication options. This allows users to choose an authenticator based on their
context, goals, and tasks (e.g., the frequency and immediacy of the task). Alternate
authentication options also help address availability issues that may occur with a
particular authenticator.
Characteristics of user-facing text:
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o Write user-facing text (e.g., instructions, prompts, notifications, error messages)
in plain language for the intended audience. Avoid technical jargon and, typically,
write for a 6th to 8th grade literacy level.
o Consider the legibility of user-facing and user-entered text, including font style,
size, color, and contrast with surrounding background. Illegible text contributes to
user entry errors. To enhance legibility, consider the use of:
 High contrast. The highest contrast is black on white.
 Sans serif fonts for electronic displays. Serif fonts for printed materials.
 Fonts that clearly distinguish between easily confusable characters (e.g.,
the capital letter “O” and the number “0”).
 A minimum font size of 12 points as long as the text fits for display on the
device.
User experience during authenticator entry:
o Offer the option to display text during entry, as masked text entry is error-prone.
Once a given character is displayed long enough for the user to see, it can be
hidden. Consider the device when determining masking delay time, as it takes
longer to enter memorized secrets on mobile devices (e.g., tablets and
smartphones) than on traditional desktop computers. Ensure masking delay
durations are consistent with user needs.
o Ensure the time allowed for text entry is adequate (i.e., the entry screen does not
time out prematurely). Ensure allowed text entry times are consistent with user
needs.
o Provide clear, meaningful and actionable feedback on entry errors to reduce user
confusion and frustration. Significant usability implications arise when users do
not know they have entered text incorrectly.
o Allow at least 10 entry attempts for authenticators requiring the entry of the
authenticator output by the user. The longer and more complex the entry text, the
greater the likelihood of user entry errors.
o Provide clear, meaningful feedback on the number of remaining allowed attempts.
For rate limiting (i.e., throttling), inform users how long they have to wait until
the next attempt to reduce confusion and frustration.
Minimize the impact of form-factor constraints, such as limited touch and display areas
on mobile devices:
o Larger touch areas improve usability for text entry since typing on small devices
is significantly more error prone and time consuming than typing on a full-size
keyboard. The smaller the onscreen keyboard, the more difficult it is to type, due
to the size of the input mechanism (e.g., a finger) relative to the size of the onscreen target.
o Follow good user interface and information design for small displays.

Intermittent events include events such as reauthentication, account lock-out, expiration,
revocation, damage, loss, theft, and non-functional software.
Usability considerations for intermittent events across authenticator types include:

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To prevent users from needing to reauthenticate due to user inactivity, prompt users in
order to trigger activity just before (e.g., 2 minutes) an inactivity timeout would otherwise
occur.
Prompt users with adequate time (e.g., 1 hour) to save their work before the fixed
periodic reauthentication event required regardless of user activity.
Clearly communicate how and where to acquire technical assistance. For example,
provide users with information such as a link to an online self-service feature, chat
sessions or a phone number for help desk support. Ideally, sufficient information can be
provided to enable users to recover from intermittent events on their own without outside
intervention.

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Usability Considerations by Authenticator Type

In addition to the previously described general usability considerations applicable to most
authenticators (Section 10.1), the following sections describe other usability considerations
specific to particular authenticator types.
10.2.1 Memorized Secrets

Typical Usage
Users manually input the memorized secret (commonly referred to as a password or PIN).
Usability considerations for typical usage include:
•

•

Memorability of the memorized secret.
o The likelihood of recall failure increases as there are more items for users to
remember. With fewer memorized secrets, users can more easily recall the
specific memorized secret needed for a particular RP.
o The memory burden is greater for a less frequently used password.
User experience during entry of the memorized secret.
o Support copy and paste functionality in fields for entering memorized secrets,
including passphrases.

Intermittent Events
Usability considerations for intermittent events include:
•

When users create and change memorized secrets:
o Clearly communicate information on how to create and change memorized
secrets.
o Clearly communicate memorized secret requirements, as specified in Section
5.1.1.
o Allow at least 64 characters in length to support the use of passphrases.
Encourage users to make memorized secrets as lengthy as they want, using any
characters they like (including spaces), thus aiding memorization.
o Do not impose other composition rules (e.g. mixtures of different character types)
on memorized secrets.
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o Do not require that memorized secrets be changed arbitrarily (e.g., periodically)
unless there is a user request or evidence of authenticator compromise.
(See Section 5.1.1 for additional information).
Provide clear, meaningful and actionable feedback when chosen passwords are rejected
(e.g., when it appears on a “black list” of unacceptable passwords or has been used
previously).

10.2.2 Look-Up Secrets

Typical Usage
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Users use the authenticator — printed or electronic — to look up the appropriate secret(s) needed
to respond to a verifier’s prompt. For example, a user may be asked to provide a specific subset
of the numeric or character strings printed on a card in table format.
Usability considerations for typical usage include:
•

User experience during entry of look-up secrets.
o Consider the prompts’ complexities and sizes. The larger the subset of secrets a
user is prompted to look up, the greater the usability implications. Both the
cognitive workload and physical difficulty for entry should be taken into account
when selecting the quantity and complexity of look-up secrets for authentication.

10.2.3 Out-of-Band

Typical Usage
Out-of-band authentication requires users have access to a primary and secondary
communication channel.
Usability considerations for typical usage:
•
•
•

Notify users of the receipt of a secret on a locked device. However, if the out of band
device is locked, authentication to the device should be required to access the secret.
Depending on the implementation, consider form-factor constraints as they are
particularly problematic when users must enter text on mobile devices. Providing larger
touch areas will improve usability for entering secrets on mobile devices.
A better usability option is to offer features that do not require text entry on mobile
devices (e.g., a single tap on the screen, or a copy feature so users can copy and paste outof-band secrets). Providing users such features is particularly helpful when the primary
and secondary channels are on the same device. For example, it is difficult for users to
transfer the authentication secret on a smartphone because they must switch back and
forth—potentially multiple times—between the out of band application and the primary
channel.

10.2.4 Single-Factor OTP Device

Typical Usage
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Users access the OTP generated by the single-factor OTP device. The authenticator output is
typically displayed on the device and the user enters it for the verifier.
Usability considerations for typical usage include:
•

•
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Authenticator output allows at least one minute between changes, but ideally allows users
the full two minutes as specified in Section 5.1.4.1. Users need adequate time to enter the
authenticator output (including looking back and forth between the single-factor OTP
device and the entry screen).
Depending on the implementation, the following are additional usability considerations
for implementers:
o If the single-factor OTP device supplies its output via an electronic interface (e.g,
USB) this is preferable since users do not have to manually enter the authenticator
output. However, if a physical input (e.g., pressing a button) is required to
operate, the location of the USB ports could pose usability difficulties. For
example, the USB ports of some computers are located on the back of the
computer and will be difficult for users to reach.
o Limited availability of a direct computer interface such as a USB port could pose
usability difficulties. For example, the number of USB ports on laptop computers
is often very limited. This may force users to unplug other USB peripherals in
order to use the single-factor OTP device.

10.2.5 Multi-Factor OTP Device

Typical Usage
Users access the OTP generated by the multi-factor OTP device through a second authentication
factor. The OTP is typically displayed on the device and the user manually enters it for the
verifier. The second authentication factor may be achieved through some kind of integral entry
pad to enter a memorized secret, an integral biometric (e.g., fingerprint) reader, or a direct
computer interface (e.g., USB port). Usability considerations for the additional factor apply as
well — see Section 10.2.1 for memorized secrets and Section 10.4 for biometrics used in multifactor authenticators.
Usability considerations for typical usage include:
•

User experience during manual entry of the authenticator output.
o For time-based OTP, provide a grace period in addition to the time during which
the OTP is displayed. Users need adequate time to enter the authenticator output,
including looking back and forth between the multi-factor OTP device and the
entry screen.
o Consider form-factor constraints if users must unlock the multi-factor OTP device
via an integral entry pad or enter the authenticator output on mobile devices.
Typing on small devices is significantly more error prone and time-consuming
than typing on a traditional keyboard. The smaller the integral entry pad and
onscreen keyboard, the more difficult it is to type. Providing larger touch areas

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improves usability for unlocking the multi-factor OTP device or entering the
authenticator output on mobile devices.
o Limited availability of a direct computer interface like a USB port could pose
usability difficulties. For example, laptop computers often have a limited number
of USB ports, which may force users to unplug other USB peripherals to use the
multi-factor OTP device.
10.2.6 Single-Factor Cryptographic Software

Typical Usage
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Users authenticate by proving possession and control of the cryptographic software key.
Usability considerations for typical usage include:
•

Give cryptographic keys appropriately descriptive names that are meaningful to users
since users have to recognize and recall which cryptographic key to use for which
authentication task. This prevents users from having to deal with multiple similarly- and
ambiguously-named cryptographic keys. Selecting from multiple cryptographic keys on
smaller mobile devices may be particularly problematic if the names of the cryptographic
keys are shortened due to reduced screen size.

10.2.7 Single-Factor Cryptographic Device

Typical Usage
Users authenticate by proving possession of the single-factor cryptographic device.
Usability considerations for typical usage include:
•
•

Requiring a physical input (e.g., pressing a button) to operate the single-factor
cryptographic device could pose usability difficulties. For example, some USB ports are
located on the back of computers, making it difficult for users to reach.
Limited availability of a direct computer interface like a USB port could pose usability
difficulties. For example, laptop computers often have a limited number of USB ports,
which may force users to unplug other USB peripherals to use the single-factor
cryptographic device.

10.2.8 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Software

Typical Usage
In order to authenticate, users prove possession and control of the cryptographic key stored on
disk or some other “soft” media that requires activation. The activation is through the input of a
second authentication factor, either a memorized secret or a biometric. Usability considerations
for the additional factor apply as well — see Section 10.2.1 for memorized secrets and Section
10.4 for biometrics used in multi-factor authenticators.

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Usability considerations for typical usage include:
•

10.2.9 Multi-Factor Cryptographic Device
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Typical Usage
Users authenticate by proving possession of the multi-factor cryptographic device and control of
the protected cryptographic key. The device is activated by a second authentication factor, either
a memorized secret or a biometric. Usability considerations for the additional factor apply as
well — see Section 10.2.1 for memorized secrets and Section 10.4 for biometrics used in multifactor authenticators.
Usability considerations for typical usage include:
•

•

Do not require users to keep multi-factor cryptographic devices connected following
authentication. Users may forget to disconnect the multi-factor cryptographic device
when they are done with it (e.g., forgetting a smartcard in the smartcard reader and
walking away from the computer).
o Users need to be informed regarding whether the multi-factor cryptographic
device is required to stay connected or not.
Give cryptographic keys appropriately descriptive names that are meaningful to users
since users have to recognize and recall which cryptographic key to use for which
authentication task. This prevents users being faced with multiple similarly and
ambiguously named cryptographic keys. Selecting from multiple cryptographic keys on
smaller mobile devices (such as smartphones) may be particularly problematic if the
names of the cryptographic keys are shortened due to reduced screen size.
Limited availability of a direct computer interface like a USB port could pose usability
difficulties. For example, laptop computers often have a limited number of USB ports,
which may force users to unplug other USB peripherals to use the multi-factor
cryptographic device.
Summary of Usability Considerations

Table 10-1 summarizes the usability considerations for typical usage and intermittent events for
each authenticator type. Many of the usability considerations for typical usage apply to most of
the authenticator types, as demonstrated in the rows. The table highlights common and divergent
usability characteristics across the authenticator types. Each column allows readers to easily
identify the usability attributes to address for each authenticator. Depending on users’ goals and
context of use, certain attributes may be valued over others. Whenever possible, provide
alternative authenticator types and allow users to choose between them.
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Multi-factor authenticators (e.g., multi-factor OTP devices, multi-factor cryptographic software,
and multi-factor cryptographic devices) also inherit their secondary factor’s usability
considerations. As biometrics are only allowed as an activation factor in multi-factor
authentication solutions, usability considerations for biometrics are not included in Table 10-1
and are discussed in Section 10.4.

Look-up Secrets

Out of Band

Single Factor OTP Device

Multi-Factor OTP Device

Single Factor
Cryptographic Software

Single Factor
Cryptographic Device

Multi-Factor
Cryptographic Software

Multi-Factor
Cryptographic Device

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Memorized secrets

Table 10-1 - Usability Considerations Summary by Authenticator Type

Authenticator availability –
authenticators readily in user’s
possession



Plain language for user facing text (e.g.,
instructions, prompts, notifications, error
messages)



Legibility of user facing text or text
entered by users



Usability Consideration

Typical Usage

Unmasked text entry
Support text entry – length of 64
characters, copy and paste



Delayed masking during text entry



Adequate time allowed for text entry



Entry errors – need clear and meaningful
feedback



Minimum of 10 attempts allowed



Remaining allowed attempts – need
clear and meaningful feedback



Form-factor constraints



Location and availability of a direct
computer interface such as a USB port



Multi-Factor
Cryptographic Device

Single Factor
Cryptographic Device

Single Factor
Cryptographic Software

Multi-Factor OTP Device



Multi-Factor
Cryptographic Software

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Physical input required (such as pressing
a button)

Single Factor OTP Device

Out of Band

Look-up Secrets

Usability Consideration

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Memorized secrets

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

Cryptographic keys need for descriptive
and meaningful names




Complexity and size of the prompts
Authentication to secondary device to
access the authentication secret



Continuous hardware connection not
required



Intermittent Events
Reauthentication due to user inactivity



Fixed periodic reauthentication



Provisions for technical assistance



Provisions to create and change
memorized secrets



Biometrics Usability Considerations

This section provides a high-level overview of general usability considerations for biometrics. A
more detailed discussion of biometric usability can be found in Usability & Biometrics, Ensuring
Successful Biometric Systems NIST Usability.
Although there are other biometric modalities, the following three biometric modalities are more
commonly used for authentication: fingerprint, face and iris.
Typical Usage
•
•

For all modalities, user familiarity and practice with the device improves performance.
Device affordances (i.e., properties of a device that allow a user to perform an action),
feedback, and clear instructions are critical to a user’s success with the biometric device.
For example, provide clear instructions on the required actions for liveness detection.

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•
•

•

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Ideally, users can select the modality they are most comfortable with for their second
authentication factor. The user population may be more comfortable and familiar with —
and accepting of — some biometric modalities than others.
User experience with biometrics as an activation factor.
o Provide clear, meaningful feedback on the number of remaining allowed attempts.
For example, for rate limiting (i.e., throttling), inform users of the time period
they have to wait until next attempt to reduce user confusion and frustration.
Fingerprint Usability Considerations:
o Users have to remember which finger(s) they used for initial enrollment.
o The amount of moisture on the finger(s) affects the sensor’s ability for successful
capture.
o Additional factors influencing fingerprint capture quality include age, gender, and
occupation (e.g., users handling chemicals or working extensively with their
hands may have degraded friction ridges).
Face Usability Considerations:
o Users have to remember whether they wore any artifacts (e.g., glasses) during
enrollment because it affects facial recognition accuracy.
o Differences in environmental lighting conditions can affect facial recognition
accuracy.
o Facial expressions affect facial recognition accuracy (e.g., smiling versus neutral
expression).
o Facial poses affect facial recognition accuracy (e.g., looking down or away from
the camera).
Iris Usability Considerations:
o Wearing colored contacts may affect the iris recognition accuracy.
o Users who have had eye surgery may need to re-enroll post-surgery.
o Differences in environmental lighting conditions can affect iris recognition
accuracy, especially for certain iris colors.

Intermittent Events
As biometrics are only permitted as a second factor for multi-factor authentication, usability
considerations for intermittent events with the primary factor still apply. Intermittent events with
biometrics use include, but are not limited to, the following, which may affect recognition
accuracy:
•
•
•

If users injure their enrolled finger(s), fingerprint recognition may not work. Fingerprint
authentication will be difficult for users with degraded fingerprints.
The time elapsed between the time of facial recognition for authentication and the time of
the initial enrollment can affect recognition accuracy as a user’s face changes naturally
over time. A user’s weight change may also be a factor.
Iris recognition may not work for people who had eye surgery, unless they re-enroll.

Across all biometric modalities, usability considerations for intermittent events include:

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•

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An alternative authentication method must be available and functioning. In cases where
biometrics do not work, allow users to use a memorized secret as an alternative second
factor.
Provisions for technical assistance:
o Clearly communicate information on how and where to acquire technical
assistance. For example, provide users information such as a link to an online
self-service feature and a phone number for help desk support. Ideally, provide
sufficient information to enable users to recover from intermittent events on their
own without outside intervention.
o Inform users of factors that may affect the sensitivity of the biometric sensor (e.g.,
cleanliness of the sensor).

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References

This section is informative.
General References

[BALLOON] Boneh, Dan, Corrigan-Gibbs, Henry, and Stuart Schechter. “Balloon Hashing: A
Memory-Hard Function Providing Provable Protection Against Sequential Attacks,” Asiacrypt
2016, October 2016. Available at: https://eprint.iacr.org/2016/027.

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[Blacklists] Habib, Hana, Jessica Colnago, William Melicher, Blase Ur, Sean Segreti, Lujo
Bauer, Nicolas Christin, and Lorrie Cranor. “Password Creation in the Presence of Blacklists,”
2017. Available at: https://www.ndss-symposium.org/wpcontent/uploads/2017/09/usec2017_01_3_Habib_paper.pdf.
[Composition] Komanduri, Saranga, Richard Shay, Patrick Gage Kelley, Michelle L Mazurek,
Lujo Bauer, Nicolas Christin, Lorrie Faith Cranor, and Serge Egelman. “Of Passwords and
People: Measuring the Effect of Password-Composition Policies.” In Proceedings of the SIGCHI
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2595–2604. ACM, 2011. Available
at: https://www.ece.cmu.edu/~lbauer/papers/2011/chi2011-passwords.pdf.
[E-Gov] E-Government Act [includes FISMA] (P.L. 107-347), December 2002, available
at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ347/pdf/PLAW-107publ347.pdf.
[EO 13681] Executive Order 13681, Improving the Security of Consumer Financial
Transactions, October 17, 2014, available at: https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2014-25439.
[FEDRAMP] General Services Administration, Federal Risk and Authorization Management
Program, available at: https://www.fedramp.gov/.
[ICAM] National Security Systems and Identity, Credential and Access Management SubCommittee Focus Group, Federal CIO Council, ICAM Lexicon, Version 0.5, March 2011.
[M-03-22] OMB Memorandum M-03-22, OMB Guidance for Implementing the Privacy
Provisions of the E-Government Act of 2002, September 26, 2003, available
at: https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/omb/memoranda/m03-22.html.
[M-04-04] OMB Memorandum M-04-04, E-Authentication Guidance for Federal Agencies,
December 16, 2003, available at: https://georgewbushwhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/memoranda/fy04/m04-04.pdf.
[Meters] de Carné de Carnavalet, Xavier and Mohammad Mannan. “From Very Weak to Very
Strong: Analyzing Password-Strength Meters.” In Proceedings of the Network and Distributed
System Security Symposium (NDSS), 2014. Available
at: http://www.internetsociety.org/sites/default/files/06_3_1.pdf.

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[NISTIR8062] NIST Internal Report 8062, An Introduction to Privacy Engineering and Risk
Management in Federal Systems, January 2017, available at:
http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ir/2017/NIST.IR.8062.pdf.
[NIST Usability] National Institute and Standards and Technology, Usability & Biometrics,
Ensuring Successful Biometric Systems, June 11, 2008, available
at: http://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=152184.
[OWASP-session] Open Web Application Security Project, Session Management Cheat Sheet,
available at: https://www.owasp.org/index.php/Session_Management_Cheat_Sheet.
This publication is available free of charge from: https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b

[OWASP-XSS-prevention] Open Web Application Security Project, XSS (Cross Site Scripting)
Prevention Cheat Sheet, available
at: https://www.owasp.org/index.php/XSS_(Cross_Site_Scripting)_Prevention_Cheat_Sheet.
[Persistence] Herley, Cormac, and Paul van Oorschot. “A Research Agenda Acknowledging the
Persistence of Passwords,” IEEE Security&Privacy Magazine, 2012. Available
at: http://research.microsoft.com/apps/pubs/default.aspx?id=154077.
[Privacy Act] Privacy Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-579), December 1974, available
at: https://www.justice.gov/opcl/privacy-act-1974.
[Policies] Weir, Matt, Sudhir Aggarwal, Michael Collins, and Henry Stern. “Testing Metrics for
Password Creation Policies by Attacking Large Sets of Revealed Passwords.” In Proceedings of
the 17th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security, 162–175. CCS ’10. New
York, NY, USA: ACM, 2010. doi:10.1145/1866307.1866327.
[Section 508] Section 508 Law and Related Laws and Policies (January 30, 2017), available
at: https://www.section508.gov/content/learn/laws-and-policies.
[Shannon] Shannon, Claude E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication,” Bell System
Technical Journal, v. 27, pp. 379-423, 623-656, July, October, 1948.
[Strength] Kelley, Patrick Gage, Saranga Komanduri, Michelle L Mazurek, Richard Shay,
Timothy Vidas, Lujo Bauer, Nicolas Christin, Lorrie Faith Cranor, and Julio Lopez. “Guess
Again (and Again and Again): Measuring Password Strength by Simulating Password-Cracking
Algorithms.” In Security and Privacy (SP), 2012 IEEE Symposium On, 523–537. IEEE, 2012.
Available at: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/6233637/6234400/06234434.pdf.
Standards

[BCP 195] Sheffer, Y., Holz, R., and P. Saint-Andre, Recommendations for Secure Use of
Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS), BCP 195, RFC
7525, DOI 10.17487/RFC7525, May 2015, https://doi.org/10.17487/RFC7525.
[ISO 9241-11] International Standards Organization, ISO/IEC 9241-11 Ergonomic requirements
for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs) — Part 11: Guidance on usability, March
1998, available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/16883.html.
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[ISO/IEC 2382-37] International Standards Organization, Information technology — Vocabulary
— Part 37: Biometrics, 2017, available
at: http://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c066693_ISO_IEC_238237_2017.zip.
[ISO/IEC 10646] International Standards Organization, Universal Coded Character Set, 2014,
available
at: http://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c063182_ISO_IEC_10646_2014.zip.

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[ISO/IEC 24745] International Standards Organization, Information technology — Security
techniques — Biometric information protection, 2011, available
at: http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=52946.
[ISO/IEC 30107-1] International Standards Organization, Information technology — Biometric
presentation attack detection — Part 1: Framework, 2016, available
at: http://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c053227_ISO_IEC_301071_2016.zip.
[ISO/IEC 30107-3] International Standards Organization, Information technology — Biometric
presentation attack detection — Part 3: Testing and reporting, 2017.
[RFC 20] Cerf, V., ASCII format for network interchange, STD 80, RFC 20, DOI
10.17487/RFC0020, October 1969, https://doi.org/10.17487/RFC0020.
[RFC 5246] IETF, The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2, RFC 5246, DOI
10.17487/RFC5246, August 2008, https://doi.org/10.17487/RFC5246.
[RFC 5280] IETF, Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and CRL Profile, RFC
5280, DOI 10.17487/RFC5280, May 2008, https://doi.org/10.17487/RFC5280.
[RFC 6238] IETF, TOTP: Time-Based One-Time Password Algorithm, RFC 6238, DOI
10.17487/RFC6238, https://doi.org/10.17487/RFC6238.
[RFC 6960] IETF, X.509 Internet Public Key Infrastructure Online Certificate Status Protocol OCSP, RFC 6960, DOI 10.17487/RFC6960, https://doi.org/10.17487/RFC6960.
[UAX 15] Unicode Consortium, Unicode Normalization Forms, Unicode Standard Annex 15,
Version 9.0.0, February 2016, available at: http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr15/.
NIST Special Publications

NIST 800 Series Special Publications are available
at: http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html. The following publications may be of
particular interest to those implementing systems of applications requiring digital authentication.
[SP 800-38B] NIST Special Publication 800-38B, Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of
Operation: the CMAC Mode for Authentication, October
2016, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-38B.
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[SP 800-52] NIST Special Publication 800-52 Revision 1, Guidelines for the Selection,
Configuration, and Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) Implementations, April
2014, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-52r1.
[SP 800-53] NIST Special Publication 800-53 Revision 4, Recommended Security and Privacy
Controls for Federal Information Systems and Organizations, April 2013 (updated January 22,
2015), https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-53r4.
[SP 800-57 Part 1] NIST Special Publication 800-57 Part 1, Revision 4, Recommendation for
Key Management, Part 1: General, January 2016, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-57pt1r4.
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[SP 800-63-3] NIST Special Publication 800-63-3, Digital Identity Guidelines, June
2017, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63-3.
[SP 800-63A] NIST Special Publication 800-63A, Digital Identity Guidelines: Enrollment and
Identity Proofing Requirements, June 2017, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63a.
[SP 800-63C] NIST Special Publication 800-63C, Digital Identity Guidelines: Federation and
Assertions, June 2017, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63c.
[SP 800-90Ar1] NIST Special Publication 800-90A Revision 1, Recommendation for Random
Number Generation Using Deterministic Random Bit Generators, June
2015, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-90Ar1.
[SP 800-107] NIST Special Publication 800-107 Revision 1, Recommendation for Applications
Using Approved Hash Algorithms, August 2012, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-107r1.
[SP 800-131A] NIST Special Publication 800-131A Revision 1, Transitions: Recommendation
for Transitioning the Use of Cryptographic Algorithms and Key Lengths, November
2015, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-131Ar1.
[SP 800-132] NIST Special Publication 800-132, Recommendation for Password-Based Key
Derivation, December 2010, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-132.
[SP 800-185] NIST Special Publication 800-185, SHA-3 Derived Functions: cSHAKE, KMAC,
TupleHash, and ParallelHash, December 2016, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-185.
Federal Information Processing Standards

[FIPS 140-2] Federal Information Processing Standard Publication 140-2, Security Requirements
for Cryptographic Modules, May 25, 2001 (with Change Notices through December 3,
2002), https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.FIPS.140-2.
[FIPS 198-1] Federal Information Processing Standard Publication 198-1, The Keyed-Hash
Message Authentication Code (HMAC), July 2008, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.FIPS.198-1.

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[FIPS 201] Federal Information Processing Standard Publication 201-2, Personal Identity
Verification (PIV) of Federal Employees and Contractors, August
2013, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.FIPS.201-2.
[FIPS 202] Federal Information Processing Standard Publication 202, SHA-3 Standard:
Permutation-Based Hash and Extendable-Output Functions, August
2015, https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.FIPS.202.

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Appendix A—Strength of Memorized Secrets

This appendix is informative.
Throughout this appendix, the word “password” is used for ease of discussion. Where used, it
should be interpreted to include passphrases and PINs as well as passwords.
A.1

Introduction

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Despite widespread frustration with the use of passwords from both a usability and security
standpoint, they remain a very widely used form of authentication [Persistence]. Humans,
however, have only a limited ability to memorize complex, arbitrary secrets, so they often
choose passwords that can be easily guessed. To address the resultant security concerns, online
services have introduced rules in an effort to increase the complexity of these memorized secrets.
The most notable form of these is composition rules, which require the user to choose passwords
constructed using a mix of character types, such as at least one digit, uppercase letter, and
symbol. However, analyses of breached password databases reveal that the benefit of such rules
is not nearly as significant as initially thought [Policies], although the impact on usability and
memorability is severe.
Complexity of user-chosen passwords has often been characterized using the information theory
concept of entropy [Shannon]. While entropy can be readily calculated for data having
deterministic distribution functions, estimating the entropy for user-chosen passwords is difficult
and past efforts to do so have not been particularly accurate. For this reason, a different and
somewhat simpler approach, based primarily on password length, is presented herein.
Many attacks associated with the use of passwords are not affected by password complexity and
length. Keystroke logging, phishing, and social engineering attacks are equally effective on
lengthy, complex passwords as simple ones. These attacks are outside the scope of this
Appendix.
A.2

Length

Password length has been found to be a primary factor in characterizing password
strength [Strength] [Composition]. Passwords that are too short yield to brute force attacks as
well as to dictionary attacks using words and commonly chosen passwords.
The minimum password length that should be required depends to a large extent on the threat
model being addressed. Online attacks where the attacker attempts to log in by guessing the
password can be mitigated by limiting the rate of login attempts permitted. In order to prevent an
attacker (or a persistent claimant with poor typing skills) from easily inflicting a denial-ofservice attack on the subscriber by making many incorrect guesses, passwords need to be
complex enough that rate limiting does not occur after a modest number of erroneous attempts,
but does occur before there is a significant chance of a successful guess.
Offline attacks are sometimes possible when one or more hashed passwords is obtained by the
attacker through a database breach. The ability of the attacker to determine one or more users’
passwords depends on the way in which the password is stored. Commonly, passwords are salted
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with a random value and hashed, preferably using a computationally expensive algorithm. Even
with such measures, the current ability of attackers to compute many billions of hashes per
second with no rate limiting requires passwords intended to resist such attacks to be orders of
magnitude more complex than those that are expected to resist only online attacks.
Users should be encouraged to make their passwords as lengthy as they want, within reason.
Since the size of a hashed password is independent of its length, there is no reason not to permit
the use of lengthy passwords (or pass phrases) if the user wishes. Extremely long passwords
(perhaps megabytes in length) could conceivably require excessive processing time to hash, so it
is reasonable to have some limit.
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A.3

Complexity

As noted above, composition rules are commonly used in an attempt to increase the difficulty of
guessing user-chosen passwords. Research has shown, however, that users respond in very
predictable ways to the requirements imposed by composition rules [Policies]. For example, a
user that might have chosen “password” as their password would be relatively likely to choose
“Password1” if required to include an uppercase letter and a number, or “Password1!” if a
symbol is also required.
Users also express frustration when attempts to create complex passwords are rejected by online
services. Many services reject passwords with spaces and various special characters. In some
cases, the special characters that are not accepted might be an effort to avoid attacks like SQL
injection that depend on those characters. But a properly hashed password would not be sent
intact to a database in any case, so such precautions are unnecessary. Users should also be able to
include space characters to allow the use of phrases. Spaces themselves, however, add little to
the complexity of passwords and may introduce usability issues (e.g., the undetected use of two
spaces rather than one), so it may be beneficial to remove repeated spaces in typed passwords
prior to verification.
Users’ password choices are very predictable, so attackers are likely to guess passwords that
have been successful in the past. These include dictionary words and passwords from previous
breaches, such as the “Password1!” example above. For this reason, it is recommended that
passwords chosen by users be compared against a “black list” of unacceptable passwords. This
list should include passwords from previous breach corpuses, dictionary words, and specific
words (such as the name of the service itself) that users are likely to choose. Since user choice of
passwords will also be governed by a minimum length requirement, this dictionary need only
include entries meeting that requirement.
Highly complex memorized secrets introduce a new potential vulnerability: they are less likely to
be memorable, and it is more likely that they will be written down or stored electronically in an
unsafe manner. While these practices are not necessarily vulnerable, statistically some methods
of recording such secrets will be. This is an additional motivation not to require excessively long
or complex memorized secrets.

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Randomly-Chosen Secrets

Another factor that determines the strength of memorized secrets is the process by which they
are generated. Secrets that are randomly chosen (in most cases by the verifier or CSP) and are
uniformly distributed will be more difficult to guess or brute-force attack than user-chosen
secrets meeting the same length and complexity requirements. Accordingly, at LOA2, SP 80063-2 permitted the use of randomly generated PINs with 6 or more digits while requiring userchosen memorized secrets to be a minimum of 8 characters long.

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As discussed above, the threat model being addressed with memorized secret length
requirements includes rate-limited online attacks, but not offline attacks. With this limitation, 6
digit randomly-generated PINs are still considered adequate for memorized secrets.
A.5

Summary

Length and complexity requirements beyond those recommended here significantly increase the
difficulty of memorized secrets and increase user frustration. As a result, users often work
around these restrictions in a way that is counterproductive. Furthermore, other mitigations such
as blacklists, secure hashed storage, and rate limiting are more effective at preventing modern
brute-force attacks. Therefore, no additional complexity requirements are imposed.